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HYDE'S SERIES IN ENGLISH 

PRACTICAL LESSONS IN THE USE OF ENGLISH. 
Book I. For Primary and Intermediate Grades. 
Book II. For Grammar Grades. Covers such Technical 
Grammar as is essential to a correct use of English. 

Book II. with Supplement. Contains 118 pages more of 

Technical Grammar than Book II. 
The Supplement is also bound separately 



PRACTICAL ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

For Upper Grammar Grades, and other classes requir- 
ing a brief, practical, progressive course in English 

Grammar. 



DERIVATION OF WORDS. 



Combined Editions. 

Book II. with Practical Grammar, 

Book II. with Supplement and Derivation of Words. 

In Preparation. 

A Composition for Upper Grammar and High School Grades. 



*- 



ADVANCED LESSONS IN ENGLISH 



A PRACTICAL ENGLISH GRAMMAR 



FOR GRAMMAR SCHOOLS, UNGRADED SCHOOLS, 

ACADEMIES, AND THE LOWER GRADES 

IN HIGH SCHOOLS 



MARY F. HYDE 
w 

Author of "Practical Lessons in the Use of English" 



BOSTON, U.S.A. 

D. C. HEATH & CO., PUBLISHERS 

1906 



mi 
M 



Copyright, 1893 and 1895, 
By MARY F. HYDE. 

Gfft 

Judge and Mrs. Isaac R. Hltt 
July 3,1933 



PREFACE. 



THIS book is designed for upper grades in grammar 
schools, and for those classes in high schools, acade- 
mies, and ungraded schools, that require a brief, practical, pro- 
gressive course in English grammar. It is specially adapted 
to the needs of pupils who have completed the second book in 
the author's series entitled, " Practical Lessons in the Use 
of English," but it can be used independently of that work or 
of that series. 

The aim of the work is not to teach the greatest possible, 
number of facts about the English language, but to give 
the pupil a mastery of the leading grammatical principles 
as a means toward the right understanding and correct use 
of English. 

The thorough training in essential principles which the 
pupil must receive from the use of this book will furnish him 
the best possible preparation for higher English studies or 
for the study of other languages. 

The work does not consist of a mere statement of defini- 
tions and rules. Every principle is presented through the 
study of examples, by which means the pupil's knowledge 
of grammatical facts is based upon his own observation. 



PREFACE. 



Examples illustrating the points to be presented precede 
the general statements of principles, that the pupil may be 
led from the observation of particular facts to general con- 
clusions. The sentences for study have been selected with 
great care from the works of our best writers, and, where 
space would admit, the names of the authors have been 
given. This method of studying English trains the pupil 
to look to the usage of the best writers and speakers for 
the laws of language, and forms in him the habit of thought- 
ful reading. 

The book contains not only sentences for the development 
of the various topics, but also an abundance of examples for 
the illustration and application of the points presented. These 
examples will be found valuable not only in connection with 
the lessons in which they appear, but with other lessons as 
well. They can be used for supplementary exercises adapted 
to the special needs of the class. 

The book is divided into four parts. Part First treats of 
"Kinds of Words — the Parts of Speech"; Part Second, of 
" Classes and Forms of Words — Subdivision of the Parts 
of Speech, and Inflection " ; Part Third, of " Relations of 
Words — Syntax " ; and Part Fourth, of the " Structure 
and Analysis of Sentences." 

My thanks are returned to all who have given me the 
benefit of their suggestions during the preparation of this 
work. I feel specially indebted to Professor Edward S. 
Joynes of the University of South Carolina, and to Professor 
Thomas R. Price of Columbia College, for invaluable criti- 
cisms during the progress of the work through the press. 

M. F. H. 



CONTENTS. 



Lesson 

I. The Sentence 

II. Subject and Predicate 

III. Nouns 

IV. Pronouns 
V. Adjectives 

VI. Verbs . 

VII. Adverbs 

VIII. Prepositions 

IX. Conjunctions 

X. Interjections 

XL Parts of Speech 

XII. Classes of Nouns 

XIII. Number . 

XIV. Number. — Continued 
XV. Number. — Continued , 

XVI. Gender 

XVII. Case . 

XVIII. Possessive Forms of Nouns 

XIX. Possessive Forms. — Continued 

XX. Possessive Forms. — Continued 

XXI. Parsing Nouns . 

XXII. Review of Nouns 

XXIII. Personal Pronouns 



Page 
I 

2 

5 

7 

9 

ii 

12 

14 
16 

17 
19 

2 5 
28 

34 
38 
40 
42 
44 
45 
47 
49 



CONTENTS. 



Lesson 

XXIV. Adjective Pronouns 

XXV. Relative Pronouns 

XXVI. Interrogative Pronouns 

XXVII. Review of Pronouns 

XXVIII. Classes of Adjectives 

XXIX. Comparison of Adjectives 

XXX. Review of Adjectives 

XXXI. Transitive and Intransitive Verbs 

XXXII. Active and Passive Voice 

XXXIII. Mode 

XXXIV. The Infinitive 
XXXV. The Participle 

XXXVI. Tense 

XXXVII. Person and Number . 

XXXVIII. Forms of Verbs . 

XXXIX. Auxiliary Verbs . 

XL. Auxiliary Verbs. — Continued 

XLI. Auxiliary Verbs. — Continued 

XLII. Auxiliary Verbs. — Continued 

XLIII. Conjugation of the Verb Drive 

XLIV. Models for Parsing Verb 

XLV. Review of Verbs . 

XLVI. Classes of Adverbs 

XLVII. Prepositions . 

XLVIII. Classes of Conjunctions 

XLIX. Interjections . 

L. Constructions of the Noun 

LI. Constructions of the Pronoun 

LII. Constructions of the Adjective 

LIII. The Verb .... 

LIV. Constructions of Infinitives . 



CONTENTS. 



Lesson 

LV. 

LVL 

LVIL 

LVIII. 

LIX. 

LX. 

LXI. 

LXII. 

LXIII. 

LXIV. 

Index 



Constructions of Participles 
Different Uses of the Same Word 
Selections for Study . 
Structure of the Sentence 
The Simple Sentence 
Analysis of Simple Sentences 
The Complex Sentence 
Analysis of Complex Sentences 
The Compound Sentence . 
Selections for Analysis 



Page 
154 
157 

*59 
163 
167 
172 
177 
181 
187 
190 

195 



Part First. 



KINDS OF WORDS— THE PARTS OF SPEECH, 

«^~^«&~€*- 

LESSON I. 

THE SENTENCE. 
How many thoughts are expressed in the following sentences? — 

i. The village master taught his little school. 

2. Keep thy tongue from evil. 

3. Who planted this old apple-tree? 

4. How are the mighty fallen ! 

The expression of a complete thought in words is called a sen- 
tence. 

State the office or use of each sentence above — tell which sen- 
tence states or declares something, which expresses a command, etc. 

A sentence that states or declares something is called a declara- 
tive sentence. 

A sentence that expresses a command or an entreaty is called an 
imperative sentence. 

A sentence that asks a question is called an interrogative sen- 
tence. 

A sentence that expresses sudden or strong feeling is called an 
exclamatory sentence. 



LESSONS IN ENGLISH. 



EXERCISE I. 

State the office of each of the following sentences, and tell the 
kind of sentence : — 

1. The last ray of sunshine departed. 

2. Every stranger finds a ready chair. 

3. How fleet is a glance of the mind ! 

4. The boat was crowded with passengers. 

5. Dark clouds began to rise in the west. 

6. The troops were concealed by a thick wood. 

7. What an admirable piece of work this is ! 

8. Apply thine heart to understanding. 

9. How many entered the room ? 

10. Consider the lilies of the field.. 

11. What was the result? 

12. I sat beside the glowing grate. 

EXERCISE II. 

1. Write three declarative sentences. 

2. Write three imperative sentences. 

3. Write three interrogative sentences 

4. Write three exclamatory sentences. 



LESSON II. 

SUBJECT AND PREDICATE. 

Tell what is spoken of in each of the following sentences, and what 
is said about the thing spoken of: — 



SUBJECT AND PREDICATE. 



i. Time flies swiftly. 

2. A rolling stone gathers no moss. 

3. The breaking waves dashed high. 

The part of a sentence that shows what is spoken of is called the 
subject. 

The part of a sentence that tells something about the thing spoken 
of is called the predicate. 

To find the subject and the predicate, answer the questions: (i) 
What is this sentence about? (2) What is said or asked about it? 

The subject and the predicate may each be expressed by a single 
word, or by several words ; as, — ■ 

Bells I ring. 
A merciful man | considers his beast. 

The subject of a declarative sentence is usually placed before the 
predicate ; as, — 

The well-curb had a Chinese roof. 

But sometimes, especially in poetry, the subject is placed after 
the predicate ; as, — 

Up springs the lark. 

Sweet is the breath of morn. 

EXERCISE I. 

Name the subject and the predicate in each of the following 
sentences : — ■ 

1. (The whole island/ was covered with wood. 

2. TJie_first_ spring wild-flowers \yield no honey. 

3. The old oaken b ucket hangs in the well. 



LESSONS IN ENGLISH. 



4. Blessed are the pure in heart. 

5. The first dragon-fly of the season is always a happy 
discovery. 

6. These prairies glow with flowers. 

7. The copper of Cyprus was in demand in most places 
of the ancient world. 

8. All bloodless lay_ the untrodden snow. 

9. For three nights they floated down the stream. 
10. Language is the highest mode of expression. 

The subject of an imperative sentence is thou, ye, or you. It is 
generally not expressed ; as, — 

Come into the garden. 

When the subject is expressed, it is placed after the verb ; as, — 

Praise ye the Lord. 

EXERCISE II. 

Copy the following sentences, supplying the subjects which are 
understood and enclosing them in brackets : — 

1. Listen to this account of the fire. 

2. Fling wide the generous grain. 

3. Throw part of the cargo overboard. 

4. Speak gently to the erring. 

5. Cleanse thou me from secret faults. 

6. Rejoice in the prosperity of others. 

7. Be not weary in well-doing. 

8. Follow the directions carefully. 

Example. — Listen \_you~\ to this account of the fire. 



NOUNS. 



EXERCISE III. 

State the kind of sentence, and name the subject and the 
predicate in each of the following sentences : — 

1. When will the matter be settled? 

2. Here we are at last ! ,, ■, 

3. What peaceful hours I once enjoyed! , , 

4. Where does he live ? ~" 

( I 



5. Where are a grasshopper'sears_? 

6. How lightly . jast ha rjjs.hip ,. sits upon us! , 

7. What real service to others did you rerider yesterday ? ^ 

8. How strange everything looks in this light! ^ . 

9. Do your friends know this ? ', '. **sys 

10. How blessings brighten as they take their flight! / / 



EXERCISE IV. 

Write three examples each of a declarative, an imperative, an 
interrogative, and an exclamatojy sentence, and name the subject 
and the predicate in each sentence. 



r 

LESSON III. 



Mention the words in the following sentences that are used as 
names, and tell what each is the name of: — 



LESSONS IN ENGLISH. 



i. America has furnished to the world the character 
of Washington. 

2. The chair stood by the window. 

3. The maples redden in the sun. 

Mention a word used as the name of a person ; the name of a 
place ; the name of a thing that you can see, feel, hear, smell, or 
touch ; the name of a thing that you can think of but cannut per- 
ceive by the senses ; the name of a quality of a person or thing ; 
the name of an action. 

A word used as a name is called a noun. 

EXERCISE I. 

Mention the nouns in the following sentences, and tell what 
kind of tiling each names : — 

i. He goes on Sunday to the church 

And sits among his boys. 

2. Then Evangeline lighted the brazen lamp on the table. 

3. A large island covered with palms divides the Nile into 
two branches. 

4. His door was always open to the wayfarer. 

5. Hear me with patience. 

6. The time of the singing of birds is come. 

7. He came early in the spring to the settlement of New 
Plymouth. 

8. The breeze comes whispering in our ear, 
That dandelions are blossoming near, 

That maize has sprouted, that streams are flowing, 
That the river is bluer than the sky, 



PRONOUNS. 



That the robin is plastering his house hard by ; 
And if the breeze kept the good news back, 
For other couriers we should not lack. — Lowell. 



EXERCISE II. 

I. Write sentences containing — 



The name of a person. 

The name of a place. 

The name of a public building. 

The name of a material used in building houses, 

The name of an article of dress. 

The name of a part of the human body. 

The name of a feeling. 

The name of an action. 



II. Name the subject and the predicate in each of the sen- 
tetices written. 



LESSON IV. 

PRONOUNS. 

For what nouns are the italicized words used in the following sen- 
tences ? — 

i. Henry paused, when he reached the door. 
2. The travellers looked surprised, when they heard 
the story. 



LESSONS IN ENGLISH. 



3. / met a little cottage girl, 

She was eight years old, she said. 

A word used for a noun is called a pronoun. By the use of the 
pronoun, we can designate a person or thing without naming it. The 
pronoun / designates the speaker without mention of his name ; the 
pronoun it refers without naming it to something that has been pre- 
viously mentioned, etc. 

EXERCISE I. 

Mention the pronouns in the follozuing sentences, and state 
for what each is used: — 

i. Train up a child in the way he should go. 

2. Nearly all the night insects are comparatively noise- 
less in their flight. 

3. The books remain where you left them. 

4. When I turned again to look for the bird, I could 
not see it. 

5. Trust men and they will be true to you ; treat them 
greatly and they will show themselves great. 

6. Not a soldier discharged his farewell shot 
O'er the grave where our hero we buried. 

7. She folded her arms beneath her cloak. 

8. As the route of the friends lay in the same direction, 
they agreed to perform the rest of their journey together. 

9. So intent were the servants upon their sports, that we 
had to ring repeatedly before we could make ourselves heard. 

10. A belted kingfisher suddenly appeared in the air just 
in front of me, where he hovered for a moment as if doubt- 
ful whether to fly over us and go up the river or to turn 
about and retreat before us. 



ADJECTIVES. 9 

EXERCISE II. 

Write sentences containing pronouns used for — 

1. The name of the speaker. 

2. The name of a person spoken to. 

3. The name of a person spoken of. 

4. The names of two or more persons spoken of. 

5. The names of the speaker and others. 

6. The name of a thing that has been previously men- 
tioned. 

7. The names of two or more things that have been pre- 
viously mentioned. 



LESSON V. 

ADJECTIVES. 

Find the words in the following sentences that are used with 
nouns, to describe or point out the things named : — 

1. A small boat approached the shore. 

2. The plant had glossy leaves. 

3. Two doves circled in the air. 

4. This package was not opened. 

The word small describes the particular kind of boat that is meant. 
The word the limits the application of the noun plant to a particu- 
lar plant. 

A word that describes or limits the meaning of another word is 
said to modify that word; as, clear water; the boy. 

A word used to modify a noun or a pronoun is called an adjective. 



10 LESSONS IN ENGLISH. 

Mention five adjectives that are used with nouns, to express the kind 
or quality of the objects named ; five adjectives that denote quantity 
or number; three adjectives that point out the thing spoken of. 

EXERCISE I. 

Name the adjectives in the following sentences, and state the 
use of each : — 

1. Two ships were anchored in the bay. 

2. Blue were her eyes as the fairy flax. 

3. A wise son maketh a glad father. 

4. Brave hearts were ready for bold deeds. 

5. These people are honest, kind-hearted, and industrious. 

6. The statue is nearly seven feet in height. 

7. The wax candles were now lighted, and showed a hand- 
some room, well provided with rich furniture. 

8. The doe was a beauty, with slender limbs, not too 
heavy flanks, round body, and aristocratic head, with small 
ears, and luminous, intelligent, affectionate eyes. — C. D. Warner. 

9. His withered cheek and tresses gray, 
Seemed to have known a better day. 

Example.— The adjectives in the first sentence are tiuo and the. 
Two shows how many ships were anchored in the bay, and the points 
out a particular bay. 

EXERCISE II. 

Write five sentences containing adjectives used to show — 

1. What kind of thing is meant. 

2. How many things are meant. 

3. How much of a quantity is mentioned. 

4. Which thing is spoken of. 



VERBS. 11 

LESSON VI. 

VERBS. 

Point out the words in the following sentences, that tell or assert 
something of the thing named : — 

i. Birds sing. 

2. The wind blows. 

3. He is a soldier. 

A word that asserts is called a verb ; as, The sun rose. 
The word that denotes the person or thing about which the asser- 
tion is made is called the subject* of the verb; as, The sun rose. 

EXERCISE I. 

Mention the verbs in the following sentences, and state what 
each tells: — 

i. The curfew tolls the knell of parting day. 

2. He springs from his hammock, he flies to the deck. 

3. The pigeons fly in great clouds from village to village. 

4. The kettle sings, the cat in chorus purrs. 

5. They robbed the wild bees of their honey, and chased 
the deer over the hills. 

6. The horses neighed, and the oxen lowed. 

7. She pointed to the web of beautifully woven cloth in 
the loom. 

8. A fire blazed brightly on the hearth. 

9. The shadows dance upon the wall. 

* See foot-note on page 76. 



12 LESSONS IN ENGLISH. 



io. When breezes are soft and skies are fair, 

I steal an hour from study and care. 
ii. Thus the night passed. The moon went down; the 
stars grew pale ; the cold day broke ; the sun rose. 

EXERCISE II. 

Write sentences containing the following words used (i) as 
nouns, (2) as verbs: — 

bark, walk, fear, sail, salt, 

rock, look, dream, fire, hope. 

EXERCISE III. 

Write sentences containing the following words used as the 
subjects of verbs. Underline the verbs: — 

moon, iron, soldier, singer, wind, 

courage, grocer, river, organ, bell. 



LESSON VII. 

ADVERBS. 

Point out the words in the following sentences that show how, when. 
or where actions were performed : — 

1. The boat moves slowly. 

2. He always spoke the truth. 

3. The child stood here. 



ADVERBS. 13 

Mention the verb in each sentence, and tell what word modifies 
its meaning. 

A word that modifies the meaning of a verb is called an adverb. 

Sometimes an adverb is used to modify the meaning of an adjec- 
tive; as, — 

1. It is a very cold day. 

2. The sleeve is too short. 

Sometimes an adverb is used to modify the meaning of another 

adverb; as, — 

i. How gently the rain falls! 

2. Do not walk so fast. 

An adverb is a word that modifies the meaning of a verb, an 
adjective, or another adverb. 

EXERCISE I. 

Mention the adverbs in the following sentences, and tell what 
each modifies: — 

i. She passed hastil y down the street. 

2. She turned, and" looked back. 

3. How hard a lesson it is to wait ! 

4. How silently the snow falls ! 

5. Trie 'common wild birds of the woods were everywhere . 

6. Faster and faster we s ped . 

7. The shower -So on passed. 

8. The statement is perfectly correct. 

9. But we steadfastly gazed on the face that was dead, 
And we bitterly thought of the morrow. — Wolfe. 

10. Now fades the glimmering landscape on the sight. 
— Gray. 



14 LESSONS IN ENGLISH. 



EXERCISE II. 

1. Write Jive sentences containing adverbs modifying verbs. 

2. Write three sentences containing adverbs modifying adjec- 
tives. 

3. Write two sentences containing adverbs modifying adverbs. 



LESSON VIII. 

PREPOSITIONS. 

Point out the words in the following sentences that show the rela- 
tion of a noun or pronoun to some other word : — 

1. They sailed up the river. 

2. No one spoke to him. 

3. The clock m the steeple struck three. 

4. She is fond of music. 

A word used with a noun or pronoun to show its relation to 
some other word in the sentence is called a preposition; as, — 

The leaves fell to the ground. 

The noun or pronoun before which the preposition is placed is 
called its object; as, — 

The boat is on the shore. 

The preposition usually joins a noun or pronoun to a verb, an 
adjective, or another noun ; as, — 



PREPOSITIONS. 15 

1. He lived [verb"] by the river. 

2. They are ready [adjective] for battle. 

3. It is a book\rvoxtf\\ of selections. 

EXERCISE I. 

Mention the prepositions in the following sentences, tell 
between what words each shows a relation, and name its 
object : — 

1. A fair little girl sat under a tree . 

2. The dining-table stood" in the centre of the room. 

3. The boy was pleased at the prospect of taking a long 
journey. 

4. At midnight I was aroused by the tramp of horses' 
hoofs in the yard. 

5. The habits of our American cuckoo are extremely 
interesting. 

6. Into the street the Piper stept. 

7. They were eager for the contest. 

8. Every day the starving poor 

Crowded around Bishop Hatto's door. — Southey. 

9. Like the leaves of the forest, when summer is green, 
That host with their banners at sunset were seen. 

10. I see the lights of the village 

Gleam through the rain and the mist. 

EXERCISE II. 

I. Write Jme sentences, each containing a preposition ex- 
pressing a remtion between a verb and a nonn or a pronoun. 






16 LESSONS IN ENGLISH. 

2. Write jtv\ sentences, each containing a preposition ex- 
pressing a relation between tzvo nouns. 

3. Write three sentences, each containing a preposition ex- 
pressing a relation between an adjective and a noun. 



LESSON IX, 

CONJUNCTIONS. 

Point out the words in the following examples, that connect sen- 
tences or similar parts of the same sentence : — 

1. The walls are high, and the shores are steep. 

2. They came, but they did not stay. 

3. Slowly and sadly we laid him down. 

4. We have been friends together, 

In sunshine and in shade. 

A word that connects sentences or similar parts of the same 
sentence is called a conjunction. 

EXERCISE I. 

Point out the conjunctions in the following sentences, and 
tell zvhat each connects : — 

1. The floods came, and the winds blew. 

2. Freely we serve, because we freely love. 

3. He reached the well, but nobody was there. 

4. The ploughman homeward plods his weary way, 

And leaves the world to darkness and to me.— Gray. 



INTERJECTIONS. 1*7 

5. She must weep, or she will die.— Tennyson. 

6. The very flames danced and capered in the polished 
grate. 

7. Sink or swim, live or die, survive or perish, I give my 
heart and my hand to this vote. —Daniel Webster. 

8. Three years she grew in sun and shower.— Wordsworth. 

9. The waves beside them danced ; but they 

Outdid the sparkling waves in glee. — Wordsworth. 

10. Blessed are the merciful, for they shall obtain mercy. 
— Bible. 

exercise ii. 

Write sentences containing conjunctions connecting — 

1. Two sentences. 

2. Two nouns. 

3. Two adjectives. 

4. Two verbs. 

5. Two adverbs. 



LESSON X. 

INTERJECTIONS. 

What words in the following sentences form no part of either sub- 
ject or predicate ? — 

1. Alas! we have delayed too long. 

2. Hark ! was that a knock ? 

3. Hurrah ! the foes are moving. 



18 LESSONS IN ENGLISH. 

What feeling is expressed by the use of the word alas ? By the 
word hark ? By the word hurrah ? 

A word used to indicate some sudden feeling is called an inter- 
jection. 

Interjections may express — 

i. Joy; as, hurrah! huzzah! 

2. Pain or suffering; as, ah! oh! alas! 

3. Surprise; as, ha! lo ! what! 

4. Disapproval; as, fie ! fudge ! 

5. A call for attention; as, ho! hey! hark! 

Etc., etc. 



EXERCISE I. 

Mention the interjections in the following sentences, and tell 
what each expresses: — 

1. Alas! I am undone. 

2. Away ! we must not linger. 

3. Hush! it is the dead of night. 

4. Halloo ! who stands guard here ? / 

5. Ah ! whence is that flame which now glares on his 
eye ? 

6. Oh ! how many broken bonds of affection were here ! 

7. But hush ! hark ! a deep sound strikes like a rising 
knell. 



8. Ha! feel ye not your fingers thrill? 

9. Alas ! they all are in their graves. 

10. Oh ! the boat is safe enough. 

11. O look! the sun begins to rise. 



PARTS OF SPEECH. 19 

12. And lo ! from the assembled crowd 

There rose a shout, prolonged and loud. 

EXERCISE II. 

Write ten sentences, each containing one of the following 
interjections : — 

hark ! whew ! ho ! hurrah ! hush ! 

fy ! pshaw ! alas ! ah ! fudge ! 



LESSON XL 

PARTS OF SPEECH. 
REVIEW EXERCISE. 

Mention some of the different parts performed by words in a 
sentence. 

What do we call a word that is used as a name ? A word used 
instead of a noun ? A word that asserts ? 

How many classes of words are used as modifiers ? What are 
these classes called ? How does the adjective differ from the adverb? 

How many kinds of connecting words are there ? What are they 
called? In what way are prepositions and conjunctions alike? How 
do they differ? 

Mention a class of words not grammatically related to the other 
words in a sentence. 

How many kinds of words have been considered? 

The different classes of words used in sentences are called parts 
of speech. They are so named from the different parts they per- 
form in the sentence. 



20 LESSONS IN ENGLISH. 



SUMMARY OF THE PARTS OF SPEECH. 

i. A noun is a word used as a name. 

2. A pronoun is a word used for a noun. 

3. An adjective is a word used to modify a noun or 
a pronoun. 

4. A verb is a word that asserts. 

5. An adverb is a word that modifies a verb, an adjec- 
tive, or another adverb. 

6. A preposition is a word used with a noun or pro- 
noun, to show its relation to some other word in the 
sentence. 

7. A conjunction is a word that connects sentences or 
similar parts of the same sentence. 

8. An interjection is a word used to indicate some 
sudden feeling. 



EXERCISE I. 

Tell whether the italicized words in the folloiving sentences 
are adverbs or prepositions, giving reasons in each case : — 

1. Is your employer within? 

2. The work will be done within a week. 

3. It rolled down the hill. 

4. Slowly and sadly we laid him down. 

5. A voice replied far up the height. 

6. Lift ?/p thine eyes unto the hills. 

7. They passed by. 

8. He sat by the well. 

9. Your hat is behind the door. 
10. Do not lag behind. 



PARTS OF SPEECH. 21 

ii. A beautiful picture hung above the altar. 

12. The eagle soars above. 

13. None but the brave deserve the fair. 

14. Man wants but little here below. 

EXERCISE II. 

Show which of the words in Italics in the following sen- 
tences are prepositions and which are conjunctions : — 

1. They came, but they did not remain. 

2. He cares for nothing but money. 

3. All the family were present, except one son. 

4. Except ye repent, ye shall all likewise perish. 

5. I have not heard from them since yesterday. 

6. Since you are here, you might remain. 

7. The children ran after the procession. 

8. He came after the exercises had closed. 

9. The building will be completed before the leaves fall. 

10. It stands before the fireplace. 

1 1 . Stay here until I come. 

12. They will remain abroad until November. 

13. He died for his country. 

14. Our bugles sang truce; for the night-cloud had low* 
ered. 

EXERCISE HI. 

Distinguish between the offices of the italicized words in 
each of the. following examples : — 

1. Then rushed the steed to battle driven. The troops 
appeared in battle array. 



22 LESSONS IN ENGLISH. 

2. Fareivell! a long farewell, to all my greatness. Not 
a soldier discharged his farewell shot. 

3. It was over in one second. Omit the second stanza. 
I second the motion. 

4. He is as good as he is strong. Who will show us any 
good? 

5. They visited a far country. Far flashed the red artillery. 

6. This is the best answer that was given. 

He prayeth best who loveth best 
All things both great and small. 

7. The horse is a fast walker. The child is fast asleep. 
When ye fast, be not, as the hypocrites, of a sad counte- 
nance. The shades of night were falling fast. 

8. He is still here. Now came still evening on. There 
is a good fire, still the room is cold. 

EXERCISE IV. 

State the office of each italicized word in the following sen- 
tences, and tell what part of speech it is : — 



His to-days are never yesterdays. 

The lion shall lie down with the lamb. 

As I looked up, I saw the boat before me. 

There is a calm for those who weep. 

The laborer is worthy of his hire. 

The good south wind still blew behind. 

It is not finished yet. 

Swiftly, swiftly sailed the ship : 
Yet she sailed softly too. 



PARTS OF SPEECH. 23 

9. Ere I go, you must consent. 

10. Think, before you speak. 

11. Still waters run deep. 

12. We look before and after. 

13. The down train is late. 

14. He had experienced many tips and downs in life. 

15. Up went the steps, bang went the door, round whirled 
the wheels, and off they rattled. 

16. We talked about the trees. 

17. On rz£-/^, on left, above, below, 
Sprung up at once the lurking foe. 

18. The very village was altered. 

19. Arise, take up thy bed, and go unto thy house. 

EXERCISE V. 

i. Write sentences containing the following words used as 
nouns : — 

to-morrow, fear, paper, ring, America. 

2. Write sentences containing the following words used as 
verbs : — 

stand, fear, paper, ring, water. 

3. Write sentences containing the following words used as 
adverbs : — 

to-morrow, after, before, since, over. 

4. Write sentences containing the following words used as 
prepositions : — 

till, before, after, over, for. 



24 LESSONS IN ENGLISH. 

5. Write sentences containing the following words nsed as 
conjunctions : — 

till, before, after, since, for. 

To the Teacher. — Give additional exercises, if they are needed, to impress 
the fact, that it is not the form of a word, but the part it performs in a sen- 
tence, that determines what part of speech the word is. 



Part Second. 



CLASSES AND FORMS OF WORDS — SUBDIVISIONS 
OF THE FARTS OF SPEECH, AND INFLECTION. 



LESSON XII. 

CLASSES OF NOUNS. 
PROPER AND COMMON NOUNS. 

Point out in the following sentences (i) the nouns that name 
special persons or things, (2) the nouns that apply to every one of 
a class of persons or things : — 

1. In the early twilight of Thanksgiving Eve came 
Laurence, and Clara, and Charley, and little Alice, 
hand in hand, and stood in a semicircle round Grand- 
father's chair. — Hawthorne. 

2. There groups of merry children played. 

3. The robin and the wren are flown. — Bryant 

A name that belongs to an individual person or thing is called a 
proper noun ; as, Clarence, New York, Thursday, Lake George. 

Proper nouns and words derived from them should 
begin with capital letters. When a proper noun is made 

2 5 



26 LESSONS IN ENGLISH. 

up of two or more words, each word should generally 
begin with a capital letter. 

A name that applies to every one of a class of persons or things 
is called a common noun; as, boy, city, day, lake. 



EXERCISE I. 

Write sentences containing — 

1. The name of a class of animals. 

2. The name of a class of flowers. 

3. The name of a class of buildings. 

4. The name of a special building. 

5. The name of a special city. 

6. The name of a special river. 

7- The name of an individual soldier. 

8. The name of an individual poet. 

9. The name of a special battle. 
10. The name of a special book. 

Collective Nouns. 

Point out the nouns in the following sentences that name collec- 
tions of persons or things, and tell of what each collection is com- 
posed : — 

1. The speaker was afraid to face the audience. 

2. The Assembly adjourned at twelve o'clock. 

3. The lowing herd winds slowly o'er the lea. —Gray. 

4. There is no flock, however watched and tended, 

But one dead lamb is there. —Longfellow. 



CLASSES OF NOUNS. 27 

5. Are fleets and armies necessary to a work of 
love and reconciliation?— Patrick Henry. 

A noun which in the singular names a collection of persons or 
things is called a collective noun; as, family, jury, swarm. 

EXERCISE II. 

Write sentences containing words used to name a collection 
of- 

ships, soldiers, sailors, wolves, sheep, 

bees, thieves, buffaloes, fish, chickens. 

Abstract Nouns. 

Mention each word in the following examples that names the 
quality or condition of a person or thing ; as, — 

The length of a river. 
The bravery of the soldier. 
The growth of the plant. 

A noun that names* a quality, action, or condition of a person or 
thing, apart from the person or thing itself, is called an abstract 
noun ; as, goodness, happiness. 

An abstract noun that names an action is sometimes called a 
verbal noun ; as, walking, singing. 

Abstract nouns are formed — 

i. From adjectives; as, brightness from- bright; honesty from 
honest; patience from patient. 

2. From verbs; as, belief from believe; singing from sing. 

3. From nouns ; as, childhood from child ; knavery from knave. 



28 



LESSONS IN ENGLISH. 



Mention each noun in the following sentences, and state the 
class to which it belongs : — 

1. The child's illness is of an alarming nature. 

2. Wisdom is better than strength. 

3. He has repented of his folly. 

4. The time of the singing of birds is come. 

5. His writing was illegible. 

6. Charity covereth a multitude of sins. 

7. How poor are they that have not patience ! 

8. How little they knew of the depth, and the strength, 
and the intenseness of that feeling of resistance to illegal 
acts of power, which possessed the whole American people ! 

EXERCISE III. 

Write the following words in a column, and opposite each 
place the corresponding abstract noun. 



industrious, 


weak, 


bright, 


warm, 


honest, 


temperate, 


walk, 


courageous, 


true, 


wise, 


sweet, 


judge, 


beautiful, 


just, 


innocent, 


proud, 


conceal, 


deceive, 


high, 


dull, 


long, 


please, 


learn, 


hard, 


pure. 



LESSON XIII. 

NUMBER. 



1. Tell how many forms each noun in the following examples 
has, and whether each form denotes one or more : — 



NUMBER. 29 

book, watch, fox, lasso, potato, 

books, watches, foxes, lassos, potatoes. 

The form of a word used in speaking of one thing is called 
singular ; the form used in speaking of more than one thing is 
called plural. 

When a noun denotes one thing, it is said to be in the singular 
number. 

When a noun denotes more than one thing it is said to be in the 
plural number. 

Most nouns form the plural by adding s to the singu- 
lar ; as, bird, birds; river, rivers. 

When the singular ends in a sound that does not unite 
easily with the sound of s, some nouns add es to the 
singular, to form the plural; as, loss, losses; match, matches; 
thrush, thrushes ; tax, taxes. 

Most nouns ending in o add s to the singular, to form 
the plural ; as, — 

piano, solo, folio, cameo, canto, 

portfolio, octavo, quarto, tyro, halo. 

Some nouns ending in o take es in the plural ; as, — 

hero, negro, cargo, torpedo, echo, 

tomato, tornado, potato, mulatto, veto. 

2. Mention the ending of the singular nouns in the following 
examples, and tell how their plurals are formed : — 

city, story, day, chimney, 

cities, stories, days, chimneys. 



30 



LESSONS IN ENGLISH. 



Nouns ending in y preceded by a vowel, add s to the 
singular, to form the plural; as, boy, boys; chimney, chimneys. 

Nouns ending in y preceded by a consonant, change y 
to ies, to form the plural ; as, city, cities ; lily, lilies. 

3. How are the singular nouns in the following examples changed 
to make each mean more than one? — 

proof, gulf, fife, 

proofs, gulfs, fifes. 

Most nouns ending in / or fe form the plural by adding 
s to the singular ; as, roof, roofs; safe, safes. 

The following nouns change / or fe to ves, to form the 
plural : — 

leaf, shelf, wolf, loaf, knife, 

half, beef, thief, calf, life. 

wife, sheaf, elf, self, wharf (or add s). 

EXERCISE I. 



Write the 


following 


words in 


columns, and opposite each 


word write 


its plural form : — 






path, 


gift, 


fable, 


tree, 


gulf, 


safe, 


truth, 


sign, 


fife, 


valley, 


roof, 


cliff, 


hero, 


tornado, 


chimney, 


muff, 


solo, 


potato, 


torpedo, 


piano, 


wreath, 


alley, 


moth, 

EXERCISE 


chief, 
11. 


handkerchief. 



Write sentences containing the plurals of the following 
nouns : — 



NUMBER. 31 



body, 


kidney, 


berry, / 


jury, 


alley, 


gallery, 


essay, 


ferry, / 


journey, 


pulley, 


copy, 


dairy, 


lily, 


donkey, 


poppy, 


daisy, 


„ %, 


city, 

EXERCISE III. 


pony, 


duty. 



Make a list of ten nouns, ending in f or fe, that form 
their plurals by the addition of s, and a list of ten other 
nouns that form their plurals in ves. 



LESSON XIV. 

NUMBER. — Continued. 
i. Mention the plurals below, and tell how they are formed: — 



man, 


foot, 


mouse, 


ox, 


child, 


men, 


feet, 


mice, 


oxen, 


children 



Some nouns form the plural by changing the vowel 

of the singular; as, man, men; goose, geese; tooth, teeth; foot, 
feet; mouse, mice (also changes s to c). 

In a few nouns the plural ends in en; as, ox, oxen; child, 
children; brother, brethren. 

2. Give the number of each italicized noun in the following exam- 
ples, and note its form : — 

i. A deer came to the shore of the lake. 
2. Deer have their established runways. 



32 LESSONS IN ENGLISH. 

3. A sheep before her shearers is dumb. 

4. All we like sheep have gone astray. 

Some nouns have the same form in both numbers ; as, 
sheep, deer, trout, cannon. 

Some nouns have no singular ; as, ashes, scissors, tongs, 
trousers. 

Some nouns have two plural forms differing in mean- 
ing; as,— 

brother, brothers (by blood), brethren (by association). 

fish, fishes (taken separately), fish (taken collectively). 

genius, geniuses (men of genius), genii (spirits). 

index, indexes (of books), indices (signs in algebra). 

pea, peas (taken separately), pease (taken collectively). 

penny, pennies (taken separately), pence (taken collectively). 

EXERCISE I. 

Write sentences containing the plurals of the following 
nouns, and tell how each plural is formed: — 

woman, foot, cannon, shad, deer, 

tooth, ox, mouse, fish, genius, 

sheaf, enemy, buoy, crutch, reef, 

wharf, colloquy, envoy, life, fife. 

EXERCISE II. 

Make a list of the following nouns, and opposite each write 



its singular:- 










genii, 


peas, 


pence, 


brethren, 


indices, 


beeves, 


brothers, 


fishes, 


pease, 


pennies, 


lives, 


indexes, 


women, 


sheaves, 


halves. 



NUMBER. 33 

LESSON XV. 
NUMBER.— Continued. 
i. Tell how each plural form below is made from the singular: — 

spoonful, brother-in-law, man-servant, 

spoonfuls, brothers-in-law, men-servants. 

Some compound nouns form the plural like single 
words, others make the principal word plural, and a 
few change both words ; as, cupful, cupfuls ; mother-in-law, 
mothers-in-law ; woman- servant, women-servants. 



EXERCISE I. 

Write the singulars of the following nouns, and tell how 
the plurals are formed: — 

grandfathers, maid-servants, merchantmen, 

eyelashes, attorneys-at-law, greenhouses, 

tooth-brushes, countrymen, forget-me-nots, 

fathers-in-law, commanders-in-chief, women-servants, 

sisters-in-law, men-of-war, knights-templars. 

2. When a title is prefixed to a proper name, the com- 
pound may be made plural by changing either the title 
or the name ; as, the Misses Brown or the Miss Browns. 

The title is made plural when it is used with two or 
more names ; as, Messrs. Stone and Wood. 

Letters, figures, and signs add the apostrophe (') and 
s, to form the plural; as, Dot the i's; Cancel the j's; Write 
the + \r on a straight line. 



34 



LESSONS IN ENGLISH. 



Many nouns taken from foreign languages retain their 
original plurals. The following are a few of the most common : — 



SINGULAR. 


PLURAL. 


formula, 


formulae, 


alumnus, 


alumni, 


animalculum 


, animalcula, 


erratum, 


errata, 


stratum, 


strata, 


index, 


indices, 


analysis, 


analyses, 


crisis, 


crises, 


beau, 


beaux, 


cherub, 


cherubim, 



SINGULAR. 


PLURAL. 


larva, 


larvae, 


radius, 


radii, 


genius, 


genii, 


memorandum 


, memoranda, 


vertex, 


vertices, 


axis, 


axes, 


basis, 


bases, 


phenomenon, 


phenomena, 


bandit, 


banditti, 


seraph, 


seraphim. 



Some foreign words which are in common use form the plural in 
the usual way, often with a difference of meaning; as, formulas, 
indexes, geniuses. 



EXERCISE II. 



Make a list of the foregoing singular nouns frotn foreign 
languages, and opposite each write from memory its plural. 



LESSON XVI. 

GENDER. 

Which words in the following list denote males? Which denote 
females ? — 



man, 
woman, 



father, 
mother, 



host, 
hostess, 



man-servant, 
maid-servant. 



GENDER. 



35 



A noun that denotes a male is said to be of the masculine 
gender ; as, man, heir. 

A noun that denotes a female is said to be of the feminine 
gender ; as, woman, heiress. 

A noun that may denote either a male or a female is said to be 
of the common gender ; as, pai-ent, friend, robin. 

A noun that denotes a thing neither male nor female is said to 
be of the neuter gender ; as, book, sky, joy. 

The gender of nouns is distinguished in three ways : — 

i. By different words; as, — 



MASCULINE. 


FEMININE. 


MASCULINE. 


FEMININE. 


bachelor, 


maid, 


husband, 


wife, 


boy, 


girl, 


king, 


queen, 


brother, 


sister, 


monk, 


nun, 


buck, 


doe, 


lord, 


lady, 


cock, 


hen, 


nephew, 


niece, 


drake, 


duck, 


papa, 


mamma, 


earl, 


countess, 


ram, 


ewe, 


father, 


mother, 


sir, 


madam, 


gander, 


goose, 


son, 


daughter 


gentleman, 


lady, 


stag, 


hind, 


hart, 


roe, 


uncle, 


aunt, 


horse, 


mare, 


wizard, 


witch. 



2. By different endings. The chief feminine ending is 
but other endings appear in some words; as, — 



MASCULINE, 


FEMININE. 


MASCULINE. 


FEMININE. 


baron, 


baroness, 


benefactor, 


benefactress 


count, 


countess, 


emperor, 


empress, 



36 



LESSONS IN ENGLISH. 



MASCULINE. 


FEMININE. 


MASCULINE. 


FEMININE. 


heir, 


heiress, 


duke, 


duchess, 


host, 


hostess, 


master, 


mistress, 


Jew, 


Jewess, 


tiger, 


tigress, 


lion, 


lioness, 


administrator, 


administratrix, 


patron, 


patroness, 


executor, 


executrix, 


prince, 


princess, 


hero, 


heroine, 


abbot, 


abbess, 


Paul, 


Pauline, 


governor, 


governess, 


czar, 


czarina, 


negro, 


negress, 


Augustus, 


Augusta, 


actor, 


actress, 


sultan, 


sultana. 



3. By prefixing words indicating the sex ; as, 



MASCULINE. 

man-servant, 
men-singers, 
he-goat, 



FEMININE. 

maid-servant, 

women-singers, 

she-goat. 



EXERCISE I. 



Make a list of all the masculine nouns mentioned in this 
lesson, and opposite each write from memory the correspond- 
ing feminine noun. 



EXERCISE II. 

Point out the masculine, the feminine, and the neuter nouns 
in the following sentences, and tell which nouns may denote 
either males or females : — 

1. We learned the ways of the fish, the birds, the bees, 
the winds, the clouds, the flowers. 



GENDER. 37 

2. Night closed in, but still no guest arrived. 

3. Leaving the boatmen at the camp, I spent the greater 
part of the night in the very heart of a jungle. 

4. Temperance and labor are the two best physicians of 
man. 

5. Though Grandfather was old and gray-haired, yet his 
heart leaped with joy whenever little Alice came fluttering, 
like a butterfly, into the room. -— Hawthorne. 

6. I have had playmates, I have had companions. — 
Charles Lamb. 

7. Brethren, the sower's task is done. — Bryant. 

8. I rise, my Lords, to declare my sentiments on this 
most solemn and serious subject. — Burke. 

9. Little Effie shall go with me to-morrow to the green, 
And you'll be there, too, mother, to see me made the 

Queen. —Tennyson. 

10. Brothers, sisters, husbands, wives, 

Followed the Piper for their lives. — Robert Browning. 

11. The lamps shone o'er fair women and brave men. 
— Byron. 

12. What would we give to our beloved? 
The hero's heart, to be unmoved, 

The poet's star-tuned harp, to sweep, 
The patriot's voice, to teach and rouse, 
The monarch's crown, to light the brows ? — 

He giveth His beloved sleep. — E. B. Browning. 



38 LESSONS IN ENGLISH. 

LESSON XVII. 

CASE. 

Mention the subjects of the verbs in the following sentences : — 

i. The boy bought a watch. 

2. An officer caught the thief. 

3. Birds build nests. 

What did the boy buy? Whom did the officer catch? What do 
birds build ? Which words limit the actions expressed by the verbs ? 

The noun or pronoun that limits the action expressed by a verb 
is called the object of the verb. 

State the offices of the italicized words in the following : — 

i. We followed the shepherds dog. 
2. The horses bridle is broken. 

When a word is used to show to whom or to what something 
belongs, it is said to denote possession. 

Find in the following sentences a noun used (i) as the subject 
of a verb, (2) as the object of a verb, (3) as the object of a prepo- 
sition, (4) to denote possession : — 

1. The boy stood by the door. 

2. He heard his father's voice. 

3. A wave upset the boat. 

4. The traveller walked through the fields. 

The relation which a noun or pronoun bears to some other word 
in the sentence is called case. 



CASE. 



A noun used as the subject of a verb is said to be in the nomi- 
native case ; as, — 

The bell rang. 

A noun used to show possession is said to be in the possessive 
case ; as, — 

The child's eyes are blue. 

A noun used as the object of a verb or of a preposition is said 
to be in the objective case; as, — 

i. They launched the vessel. 
2. He gazed at the flowers. 

The case of a noun is determined by the relation that it bears 
to some other word in the sentence. The possessive case of nouns 
is the only one that has a special form. The common or ordinary 
form of the noun is used in the other cases. 

The alteration in the form of a word to express a change of 
meaning is called inflection. Nouns are inflected to indicate num- 
ber and case. A noun is said to be declined when its number 
and case forms are regularly arranged ; as, — 

NOM. AND OBJ. CASE. POSSESSIVE CASE. 

Singular. boy, boy's, 

Plural. boys, boys'. 

EXERCISE I. 

State the kind, the gender, the number, and the case of the 
nouns in the following sentences : — 

i. This tree stood in the centre of an ancient wood. 

2. The waves rush in on every side. 

3. Grandfather's chair stood by the fireside. 

4. The stranger shook his head mournfully. 



40 LESSONS IN ENGLISH. 

5. Birds have wonderfully keen eyes. 

6. He shook his head, shouldered the rusty firelock, and 
with a heart full of trouble and anxiety turned his steps 
homeward. 

7. Dark lightning flashed from Roderick's eye. —Scott. 

8. When the rock was hid by the surge's swell, 
The mariners heard the warning bell. — Southey. 

9. The rude forefathers of the hamlet sleep. —Gray. 

10. They shook the depths of the desert gloom.— Hemans. 

EXERCISE II. 

1. Write five sentences containing nouns in the nomina- 
tive case. 

2. Write five sentences containing nouns in the posses- 
sive case. 

3. Write five sentences containing nouns in the objective 
case. 



LESSON XVIII. 

POSSESSIVE FORMS OF NOUNS. 

Mention the nouns that are in the possessive case, and tell how 
the possessive is formed in each example : — 

1. She knelt by the lady's side. 

2. The ladies' gallery is closed. 

3. Men's voices were heard. 

Add the apostrophe and s ('«) to a singular noun, to 
form the possessive; as, boy, boy's; man, man's. 



POSSESSIVE FORMS OF NOUNS. 41 

The s is sometimes omitted in poetry for the sake of the metre ; 
and it is also omitted in a few words where too many hissing sounds 
would come together ; as, for conscience'' sake ; for righteousness 1 
sake ; for Jesus' sake. 

Add the apostrophe (>) to a plural noun ending in s, to 
form the possessive ; as, boys, boys' ; ladies, ladies'. 

Add the apostrophe and s ('s) to a plural noun not 
ending in s, to form the possessive; as, men, men's; children, 
children's. 

The possessive sign does not always denote possession. It is used 
to show authorship, origin, kind, etc.; as, Lowell's poems; the sun's 
rays ; men's clothing. 

EXERCISE I. 

Point out the nouns in these sentences, tell hoiv each is used, 
and name its case: — 

i. The lark's song rang in her ears. 

2. The sound of horses' hoofs was heard in the distance. 

3. The scene brought to mind an old writer's account of 
Christmas preparations. 

4. The incidents of the Revolution plentifully supplied 
the barber's customers with topics of conversation. 

5. The boy rang the janitor's bell. 

6. A burst of laughter came from the servants' hall. 

7. I noted but two warblers' nests during the season. 

8. Vainly the fowler's eye 

Might mark thy distant flight to do thee wrong. 

.9. He felt that his little daughter's love was worth a 
thousand times more than he had gained by the Golden 
Touch. — Hawthorne. 
D* 



42 



LESSONS IN ENGLISH. 



EXERCISE II. 

Write in one column the possessive singular forms, and in 
another column the possessive plural forms of the following 
words : — 



sister, 


woman, 


boy, 


girl, 


mother, 


wife, 


soldier, 


son, 


bee, 


bird, 


friend, 


teacher, 


poet, 


child, 


man, 


judge. 


Example. 


-SINGULAR. 


PLURAL. 






sister's, 


sisters', 






woman's, 


women's. 





LESSON XIX. 



POSSESSIVE FORMS. 



Tell how the possessive case is formed in the following compound 
words and phrases : — 

i. The lieutenant-governor's reverie had now come 
to an end. 

2. Bright and Dun's window is filled with flowers. 
*3. They are reading Graham and Wood's History. 

When a name is composed of two or more words, add 
the possessive sign to the last word only ; as, Marsh and 
Woods store ; Lee and Peabodfs office. 

Two connected nouns implying separate possessions 
must each take the possessive sign ; as, Webster's and Worces- 
ter's dictionaries. 



POSSESSIVE FORMS. 43 

EXERCISE I. 

Explain the possessivcs in the following examples : — 

i. In my father's house are many mansions. 

2. Hope vanished from Fitz-James's eye. — Scott. 

3. This happened after General Washington's departure 
from Cambridge. 

4. Many a young man ransacked the garret, and brought 
forth his great-grandfather's sword, corroded with rust and 
stained with the blood of King Philip's War. — Hawthorne. 

5. The rest of the house was in the French taste of 
Charles the Second's time. —Irving. 

6. The grocers', butchers', and fruiterers' shops were 
thronged with customers. —Irving. 

7. Hither they came, from the cornfields, from the clear- 
ing in the forest, from the blacksmith's forge, from the 
carpenter's workshop, and from the shoemaker's seat. — 
Hawthorne. 

8. Let all the ends thou aim'st at be thy country's, 
Thy God's, and truth's. — Shakespeare. 

9. What good woman does not laugh at her husband's or 
father's jokes and stories time after time ?— Thackeray. 

10. These are Clan-Alpine's warriors true. —Scott. 



five sen 



EXERCISE II. 

Write Jive^sentences containing connected nouns denoting 
joint possession. 

2. Write jvve" tent e 11c es containing connected nouns denoting 
separate possession. 



44 LESSONS IN ENGLISH. 

LESSON XX. 

POSSESSIVE FORMS. — Continued. 

Possession is sometimes indicated by the objective case with the 
preposition of ; as, The voice of the speaker, for the speaker's voice. 

This form is generally used in speaking of things without life ; as, 
The lid of the box ; the bank of the river. 

This form is preferred also in speaking of persons, when the pos- 
sessive form would be ambiguous or awkward ; as, The wife of one 
of my brothers. 

When a thing is personified, the possessive sign is generally used, 
particularly by the poets ; as, — 

And read their history in a nation's eyes. —Gray. 
In reason's ear they all rejoice. —Addison. 

Certain words and phrases denoting a period of time take the 
possessive case also ; as, A day's journey ; a week's vacation ; six 
months' interest. 

EXERCISE I. 

Explain f?dly the case of each noun in the following sen- 
tences, and point out the examples in which possession is indi- 
cated by the objective case with the preposition of: — 

i. I flew to the pleasant fields traversed so oft 

In life's morning march, when my bosom was young. 

— Campbell. 

2. He has not learned the lesson of life who does not 
every day surmount a fear. — Emerson. 

3. The trade of America had increased far beyond the 
speculations of the most sanguine imaginations. —Burke. 



PARSING NOUNS. 45 



4. The poetry of earth is never dead. —Keats. 

5. Either measure would have cost no more than a day's 
debate. — Burke. 

6. They came without a moment's delay. 

7. She has had two years' experience. 

8. He likes neither winter's snow nor summer's heat. 

9. The city was taken after a ten years' siege. 
10. The chieftain's pride was humbled. 

EXERCISE II. 

Select from standard writers — 

1. Ten sentences in which possession is indicated by the 
objective case with the preposition of. 

2. Ten other sentences in which possession is indicated 
by the use of the possessive sign. 



LESSON XXI. 

PARSING NOUNS. 
To parse a word, tell — 

1. Its classification — name the part of speech. 

2. Its form — give the inflection, if any. 

3. Its construction — show its grammatical relation to 
other words in the sentence. 

Parse each noun in the follotving exercises. Tell — 

1. The kind of noun. 

2. Its number. 



46 



LESSONsl IN ENGLISH. 



3. Its gender. 

4. Its case. 

5. Its construction. 

Example. — His eyes sparkled with joy when he heard Jasorii 
reply. 

1. Eyes is a common noun, plural number, neuter gender, nomi- 
native case, subject of the verb sparkled* 

2. Joy is an abstract noun, singular number, neuter gender, objec- 
tive case, object of the preposition with. 

3. Jason's is a proper noun, singular number, masculine gender, 
possessive case, depending upon the noun reply. 

4. Reply is a common noun, singular number, neuter gender, 
objective case, object of the verb heard. 



EXERCISE I. 

1. The lights of the church shone through the door. 

2. Nell and her grandfather rose from the ground, and 
took the track through the wood. —Dickens. 

3. The rude forefathers of the hamlet sleep. —Gray. 

4. I bring fresh showers for the thirsting flowers. — Shelley. 

5. Strong reasons make strong actions. —Shakespeare. 

6. I stood in Venice, on the Bridge of Sighs. — Byron. 

7. I now bade a reluctant farewell to the old hall.— Irving. 

8. A great deal of talent is lost in the world for the 
want of a little courage. —Sidney Smith. 

* A briefer method of parsing may be followed as soon as the pupil is fa- 
miliar with the different steps; thus, Eyes is a noun, common, plural, neuter, 
nominative, subject of the verb sparkled. 



FEVIEW OF NOUNS. 47 



EXERCISE II. 

1. The eyes of the sleepers waxed deadly and chill. — Byron. 

2. Is Saul also among the prophets ? — Bible. 

3. The doe lifted her head a little with a quick motion, 
and turned her ear to the south. — C. D. Warner. 

4. They had now reached the road which turns off to 
Sleepy Hollow; but Gunpowder, who seemed possessed with 
a demon, instead of keeping up it, made an opposite turn, 
and plunged headlong down hill to the left. — Irving. 

5. 'Tis the middle of night by the castle clock, 
And the owls have awakened the crowing cock. 

— Coleridge. 

6. A soft answer turneth away wrath. — Bible. 

7. Some have even learned to do without happiness, 
and instead thereof have found blessedness. — Caklyle. 

8. The lowing herd winds slowly o'er the lea. —Gray. 

9. Reading maketh a full man, conversation a ready 
man, and writing an exact man. —Bacon. 

10. Charity beareth all things, believeth all things, hopeth 
all things, endureth all things. — Bible. 



LESSON XXII. 

REVIEW OF NOUNS. 

What is a noun? Mention the two leading classes of nouns and 
state the difference between these classes. What is a collective 



48 LESSONS IN ENGLISH. 

noun? What is an abstract noun? State three ways in which 
abstract nouns are formed, and illustrate by examples. 

What is meant by inflection? To what do the inflections of 
nouns relate? 

How do most nouns form the plural? Mention other ways in 
which nouns form their plurals, and illustrate by example. 

Give the plural of watch, piano, potato, donkey, lily, loaf, roof, 
tooth, ox, sheep. 

Distinguish between the meaning of brothers and brethren ; fishes 
and fish ; indexes and indices ; pennies and pence. 

State three ways in which compound nouns form the plural, and 
illustrate by examples. 

Give the plural of larva, alumnus, axis, beau, bandit, seraph. 
Why do these nouns not form their plurals in the usual way? 

What is gender? How many genders are there, and what does 
each denote? Mention three ways in which the gender of nouns 
is distinguished. 

Give the feminine nouns corresponding to the nouns hart, monk, 
nephew, host, master, governor, executor, hero, man-servant. 

Tell the gender of the nouns woman, heiress^ landlord, doe, wait- 
ress, czar, administratrix, guest, friend, witness, cousin, sun, wind, 
table, house. 

How many cases have nouns? What determines the case of a 
noun? Which case has a special form? How is the possessive case 
of nouns formed? How is the possessive formed in compound words 
and phrases? How may possession be indicated without the posses- 
sive form? When is this way preferable? 



PERSONAL PRONOUNS. 49 



LESSON XXIII. 

PERSONAL PRONOUNS. 

Mention the pronouns in the following sentences, and tell which 
denote the person speaking, which the person spoken to, and 
which the person or thing spoken of: — 

i. I met a little cottage girl; 

She was eight years old, she said. 

2. You will be surprised when you read the report. 

3. He requested that we should be present. 

4. Buy the truth, and sell it not. 

A pronoun that shows by its form whether the person speaking 
is meant, the person spoken to, or the person or thing spoken of, is 
called a personal pronoun. 

A pronoun that denotes the person speaking is said to be in the 
first person ; as, 7, we. 

A pronoun that denotes a person spoken to is said to be in the 
second person ; as, thou, ye, you. 

A pronoun that denotes a person or a thing spoken of is said to 
be in the third person ; as, he, she, it, they. 

Declension of the Personal Pronouns. 
first person. 





Singular. 




Plural. 


Nom. 


I, 


Nom. 


we, 


Poss. 


mine, or my, 


Poss. 


ours, or our, 


Obj. 


me. 


Obj. 


us. 



50 LESSONS IN ENGLISH. 





SECOND 

Singular. 


PERSON. 


Plural. 


Norn. 


thou, 


Nom. 


ye, or you, 


Poss. 


thine, or thy, 


Poss. 


yours, or your, 


Obj. 


thee. 


Obj. 


you. 



The second person singular is no longer in common use. It is 
now chiefly used in prayer and in poetry ; as, — 

1. Withhold not thou thy tender mercies from me. 

2. I see in thy gentle eyes a tear; 

They turn to me in sorrowful thought; 
Thou thinkest of friends, the good and dear, 

Who were for a time, and now are not — Bryant. 

The plural pronoun you is used, in ordinary speech, whether one 
or more than one person is addressed ; as, — 

1. You are merry, my lord. — Shakespeare. 

2. You are not wood, you are not stones, but men. — 
Shakespeare. 







THIRD PERSON. 








Singular. 


Plural. 




Masc. 


Fern. Neut. 


Masc, Fern., or Neut. 


Nom. 


he, 


she, it, 


they, 


Poss. 


his, 


hers, or her, its, 


theirs, or their, 


Obj. 


him, 


her, it. 


them. 



The pronoun of the masculine gender is generally used to refer to 
a noun which may denote a person of either sex ; as, — 

Each pupil must provide his own material. 



PERSONAL PRONOUNS. 51 

The pronoun of the masculine gender is also used in referring to 
animals or things that are supposed to possess masculine qualities, 
and the pronoun of the feminine gender is used in referring to 
animals or things to which feminine qualities are attributed ; as, — 

1. The eagle soars above his nest. 

2. Earth, with her thousand voices, praises God. — Coleridge. 

The pronoun of the neuter gender is often used to refer to ani- 
mals or to young children, in cases where the sex is not considered ; 
as,— 

The deer raised its head. 

The infant knew its name. 

The possessive forms my, thy, her, our, your, and their are used 
with nouns, and the forms mine, thine, hers, ours, yours, and theirs 
are used when no noun follows the possessive ; as, — 

This is my book. 
The book is mine. 

The former are therefore often called possessive adjectives. 
Mine and thine are sometimes used for my and thy, before words 
beginning with a vowel sound ; as, — 

Bow down thine ear. 

I will lift up mine eyes unto the hills. 

COMPOUND PERSONAL PRONOUNS. 

Tell how the italicized pronouns in the following sentences are 
formed, and how each is used : — 

i. The boy hurt himself. 

2. We often deceive ourselves. 

3. I myself heard the remark. 



52 



LESSONS IN ENGLISH. 



The pronouns my, our, thy, your, him, her, it, and them are used 
with self or selves to form compound personal pronouns. 

These compound pronouns are sometimes used as reflexives, that 
is, as objects denoting the same person or thing as the subject of 
the verb ; as, — 

I let myself down with a rope. 



They are also used to express emphasis; as, • 
She herself read the book. 



COMPOUND PERSONAL PRONOUNS. 

Singular. Plural. 

First Person. myself, ourselves, 

f thyself, 



Second Person. 



\ yourself, 



(himself, 
herself, 
itself. 



yourselves, 



themselves. 



EXERCISE I. 

Tell the person, number, gender, and case of each pronoun 
in the following exercises : — 

i. Something frightened the little animal, and it scam- 
pered far away through the woods. 

2. I listened with suspended breath, but not a sound came 
to my ears. 

3. Then they praised him, soft and low.— Tennyscn. 

4. My son, if sinners entice thee, consent thou not. — Bible. 



ADJECTIVE PRONOUNS. 53 

5. He then led me to the highest pinnacle of the rock. 

— Addison. 

6. Give every man thine ear, but few thy voice. — 
Shakespeare. 

7. It is excellent discipline for an author to feel that he 
must say all he has to say in the fewest possible words. 

— RUSKIN. 

8. Boast not thyself of to-morrow; 

For thou knowest not what a day may bring forth. 

— Bible. 



LESSON XXIV. 

ADJECTIVE PRONOUNS. 

Which of the italicized words below are used as adjectives? Which 
are used as pronouns? — 

i. Many tickets were sold. 

2. Many were unable to secure seats. 

3. Look at this clock. 

4. This is sold. 

Certain words can be used to limit nouns or to stand for nouns. 
When such words are used with nouns, they are called adjectives ; 
when they stand for nouns they are called adjective pronouns. 
Sometimes there is a difference of form; as, no (adj.), none (pro.) ; 
other (adj.), others (pro.). 

The principal words used as adjective pronouns are all, another, 
any, both, each, either, few, many, neither, none, one, other, several, 
some, this, these, that, those. 



54 LESSONS IN ENGLISH. 



EXERCISE I. 



Tell whether the italicized words in the following sentences 
are adjectives or pronouns, giving reasons in each case: — 

1. Many, alas! had fallen in battle. —Hawthorne. 

2. There is a calm for those who weep.— J. Montgomery. 

3. All are architects of fate, 

Working in these walls of time ; 
Some with massive deeds and great, 

Some with ornaments of rhyme. — Longfellow. 

4. Any life that is worth living must be a struggle. 
— Dean Stanley. 

5. The man deserving the name is one whose thoughts 
and exertions are for others rather than for himself. — Sir Walter 
Scott. 

6. All men think all men mortal but themselves. —Young. 

7. Men at some time are masters of their fate. — Shakespeare. 

8. This was the noblest Roman of them all. —Shakespeare. 

9. My worthy friend Sir Roger is one of those who is 
not only at peace with himself, but beloved and esteemed 
by all about him. — Addison. 

10. It is one thing to be well informed ; it is another to 
be wise. — Robertson. 

11. We too seldom think how much we owe to those 
formidable savages. —John Fiske. 

12. Few shall part where via?iy meet. — Campbell. 

13. To know 

That which before us lies in daily life 
Is the prime wisdom. — Milton. 



RELATIVE PRONOUNS. 55 

EXERCISE II. 

Construct sentences containing the following words used 
(i) as adjectives, (2) as adjective pronouns : — 

both, each, few, several, these, 

neither, none, many, that, other. 



LESSON XXV. 

RELATIVE PRONOUNS. 

Tell how many assertions are made in each of the following sen 
tences, read the principal statement, and state the office of the 
italicized part : — 

1. We found a guide, who answered our questions. 

2. The wind, which rose suddenly, had now ceased. 

3. A city that is set on a hill cannot be hid. 

A part of a sentence that contains a subject and a predicate is 
called a clause. 

The clause that expresses the leading or principal thought of a 
sentence is called an independent or principal clause. 

A clause that depends upon some other part of the sentence for 
its full meaning is called a dependent or subordinate clause. 

Which words in the dependent clauses above refer to preceding 
nouns, and how are the dependent clauses joined to the independent 
clauses ? 

A word that refers to a preceding noun or pronoun, and connects 
with it a dependent clause, is called a relative pronoun. 



56 LESSONS IN ENGLISH. 

The word to which a pronoun refers or relates is called its ante- 
cedent. The relative pronoun connects the clause of which it is a 
part to its antecedent. 

The relative pronouns are who, which, that, and 7vhat. 

Who is applied to persons ; as, — 

Hail to the chief who in triumph advances. — Scorr. 

Which is applied to the lower animals and to things without 
life ; as, — 

i. Here is the horse which will take us to the end of our 
journey. 

2. Nature has, indeed, given us a soil which yields bounte- 
ously to the hands of industry. —Webster. 

Which was formerly used in speaking of persons; as, — 

Our Father which art in heaven. 
That is applied to^persons, to animals, and to things ; as, — 

i. Thrice is he armed that hath his quarrel just. —Shakespeare. 

2. A half-starved dog, that looked like Wolf, was skulking 
about the house. —Irving. 

3. A city that is set on a hill cannot be hid. — Bible. 

What is used without an antecedent expressed. It is equivalent 
to that which; as, — 

She remembers what [that which] she reads. 

As is sometimes used as a relative pronoun. It is then usually 
preceded by such; as, — 

Let such as [those who] hear take heed. 



RELATIVE PRONOUNS. 57 

But is also used as a relative pronoun. It has a negative 
force ; as, — 

There is no fireside, howsoe'er defended, 

But has {that has not] one vacant chair. — Longfellow. 

A relative clause may introduce an additional fact about the 
antecedent; as, — 

They had one son, who had grown up to be the staff and 
pride of their age. — Irving. 

Or it may limit or restrict the meaning of the antecedent ; as, — 

The bird that soars on highest zviug 
Builds on the ground her lowly nest. 

That is preferred to who in restrictive clauses. 
Who is declined as follows : — 

SINGULAR OR PLUKAL. 

Nominative Case, who, 
Possessive Case. whose, 
Objective Case. whom. 

The other relative pronouns are not declined, but whose is often 
used as if it were the possessive form of which ; as, — 

Bordered with trees whose gay leaves fly. — Bryant. 

COMPOUND RELATIVE PRONOUNS. 

Pronouns formed by adding ever or soever to who, which, and 
what are called compound relative pronouns ; as, whoever, who- 
soever ; ivhichever, whichsoever ; whatever, whatsoever. 
E* 




^ M 

58 LESSONS IN ENGLISH. 



EXERCISE I. 

Mention the relative pronouns in the following sentences, 
name their antecedents, tell tvliat the pronouns connect, and 
give the case of each : — 

1. He that lacks time to mourn lacks time to mend. 

2. Where lies the land to which the ship would go ? 

3. My ramble soon led me to the church, which stood a 
little distance from the village. —Irving. 

4. What a man has learnt is of importance, but what he 
is, what he can do, what he will become, are more significant 
things. —Helps. 

5. He that is slow to anger is better than the mighty. 

— Bible. 

6. A land that will not yield satisfactorily without irriga- 
tion, and whose best paying produce requires intelligent as 
well as careful husbandry, will never be an idle land. —Warner. 

7. All precious things, discovered late, 

To those that seek them issue forth. — Tennyson 

8. They are slaves who dare not be 

In the right with two or three. — Lowell. 

9. Here, then, I parted, sorrowfully, from the companion 
with whom I set out on my journey. —Holmes. 

10. He who has sought renown about the world, and has 
reaped a full harvest of worldly favor, will find, after all, 
that there is no love, no admiration, no applause, so sweet 
to the soul as that which springs up in his native place 

— Irving. 



RELATIVE PRONOUNS. 59 



EXERCISE II. 

Point out the relative pronouns in the following sentences, 
name their antecedents, and tell whether the relative clauses 
introduce additional facts about the antecedents, or limit and 
restrict their meaning. 

i. He that is not with me is against me. 

2. The man wjio provides a home for a poor neighbor 
is a greater benefactor of the poor than he who_ lays the 
foundation of a stately almshouse and never finishes a single 
apartment. — J. Hamilton. 

3. Those who live without a plan have never any leisure. 

4. The Carrier, who had turned his face from the door, 
signed to him to go if he would. — Dickens. 

5. Carefully then were covered the embers thai glowed 
on the hearth-stone. — Longfellow. 

6. Not far from the gateway they came to a bridge, 
which seemed to be built of iron. — Hawthorne. 

7. The first spring wild-flowers, whose shy faces among 
the dry leaves and rocks are so welcome, yield no honey. 
— John Burroughs. 

8. The tongue is like a race-horse, which runs the faster 
the less weight it carries. —Addison. 

9. We were the first that ever burst 
Into that silent sea. —Coleridge. 

10. Bordered with trees whose gay leaves fly 

On every breath that sweeps the sky 
The fresh dark acres furrowed lie, 
And ask the sower's hand. — Bryant. 



4 



x 



60 LESSONS IN ENGLISH. 

A relative pronoun has the same person, number, and gender as 
its antecedent ; as, — 

i. And will your mother pity me, 

Who am a maiden most forlorn ? — Coleridge. 

2. He prayeth best, who loveth best 

All things, both great anc j sm all. —Coleridge. 



EXERCISE III. 

Mention the person, number, gender, and case of each relative 
pronoun in the following sentences : — 

i. Hail to the chief who in triumph advances. — Scott. 

2. The books which help you most are those which 
make you think most. — Parker. 

3. They never fail who die in a great cause. — Byron. 

4. The Upper Lake discharges itself into the Lower by 
a brook which winds through a mile and a half of swamp 
and woods. — Warner. 

5. I tell you that which you yourselves do know. 
— Shakespeare. 

6. How beautiful upon the mountains are the feet of him 
that bringeth good tidings ! — Bible. 

7. Where are the flowers, the fair young flowers, that 

lately sprang and stood 
In brighter light, and softer air, a beauteous sisterhood ? 

8. The charities that soothe and heal and bless, 
Lie scattered at the feet of men like flowers. 




INTERROGATIVE >\ONOUNS. 61 



LESSON XXVI. 

INTERROGATIVE PRONOUNS. 

• How are the italicized words used in the following sentences : — 

i. Who comes here? 

2. Which reached home first? 

3. What is the news? 

A pronoun used in asking a question is called an interrogative 
pronoun. The interrogative pronouns are who, which, and what. 
Who refers to persons. It is declined like the relative who. 
Which refers to persons or to things. It implies selection ; as, — 

Which of the brothers sings ? 
Which of the chairs do you prefer? 

What refers to things ; as, — 

What was in the box ? 

Wliich and what are sometimes used as interrogative adjec- 
tives ; as, — 

Where are they now ? What lands and skies 
Paint pictures in their friendly eyes? 
What hope deludes, what promise cheers, 
What pleasant voices fill their ears ? — Longfellow. 

EXERCISE I. 

Point out the pronouns in the following sentences, tell the 
kind of each pronoun, and name its case : — 

i. Who can understand his errors ? 

2. The child sat silent beneath a tree, hushed in her 



LESSONS IN ENGLISH. 



I 



very breath by the stillness of the night, and all its attend- 
ant wonders. — Dickens. 

3. Nearly all the most charming of the singing-birds prefer 
the early morning and the evening twilight for their vocal 
performances, though some of them sing far into the night. 

— M. Thompson. 

4. The stranger at my fireside cannot see 

The forms I see nor hear the sounds I hear ; 
He but perceives what is ; while unto me 

All that has been is visible and clear. — Longfellow. 

5. All things that are on earth shall wholly pass away, 
Except the love of God, which shall live and last for aye. 

6. He is the freeman whom the truth makes free. — Cowper. 

7. Ah ! what is that sound which now bursts on his ear ? 

— DlMOND. 

8. Who, among the whole chattering crowd, can tell me 
of the forms and the precipices of the chain of tall white 
mountains that girded the horizon at noon yesterday ? Who 
saw the narrow sunbeam that came out of the south, and 
smote upon their summits until they melted and mouldered 
away in a dust of blue rain ? Who saw the dance of the 
dead clouds when the sunlight left them last night, and the 
west wind blew them before it like withered leaves ? — Ruskin. 



EXERCISE II* 

Write sentences containing — 

1. Who used as a relative pronoun in the nominative 
case ; as a relative pronoun in the possessive case ; as a rel- 



REVIEW OF PRONOUNS. 63 

ative pronoun in the objective case ; as an interrogative 
pronoun. 

2. Which used as an adjective; as a relative pronoun; as 
an interrogative pronoun. 

3. What used as an adjective ; as a relative pronoun ; as 
an interrogative pronoun. 

4. That used as an adjective; as an adjective pronoun; as f 
a relative pronoun. ^/ 



LESSON XXVII. 

REVIEW OF PRONOUNS. 
EXERCISE I. 

What is a pronoun? How does a pronoun differ from a noun? 

Mention the different classes of pronouns and give examples of 
each class. 

What is a personal pronoun? How many case forms has the pro- 
noun of the first person? How is each used? 

Mention the second person singular, and tell how it is us« 
Give two uses of the pronoun you. 

Which person has a distinction of gender? State special uses 
the pronouns of the masculine, feminine, and neuter genders. Hov 
are the possessive forms of personal pronouns used? 

Mention the cojaaf^wnd personal pronouns, and tell how they are 
formed. 

Give an example of their use as reflexives ; for emphasis. 

How does an adjective pronoun differ from an adjective? 

Define a relative pronoun. State the distinctions in the use of 



edi 

[of 



64 LESSONS IN ENGLISH. 

who, which, and what. Give a sentence in which as is used as a 
relative pronoun ; in which but is so used. 

What is an interrogative pronoun? Name the interrogative pro- 
nouns. 

EXERCISE II. 

Parse the pronouns in the following sentences : — 
To parse a pronoun, tell — 

i. The kind of pronoun. 

2. Its person. 

3. Its number. 

4. Its gender. 

5. Its case. 

6. Its construction. 

Example. -And then / think of one who in her youthful 
beauty died. 

1. /is a personal pronoun, first person, singular number, com- 
mon gender, nominative case, subject of the verb think* 

2. One is an adjective pronoun, third person, singular number, 
feminine gender, objective case, object of the preposition of. 

3. Who is a relative pronoun, third person, singular number, 
feminine gender, agreeing with its antecedent one, and nominative 
case, subject to the verb died. 

4. Her is a personal pronoun, third person, singular number, 
feminine gender, possessive case, depending upon the noun beauty. 

1. The moon did not rise till after ten, so I had two 
hours of intense darkness during which I used my ears 
instead of my eyes. — M. Thompson. 

* Or follow a briefer form, similar to the one suggested on p. 46. 



REVIEW OF PRONOUNS. 65 

2. And what is so rare as a day in June ? — Lowell. 

3. Hang around your walls pictures which shall tell stories 
of mercy, hope, courage, faith, and charity. — D. G. Mitchell. 

4. A few hoped, and many feared, that some scheme of 
monarchy would be established. — John Fiske. 

5. With merry songs we mock the wind 

That in the pine top grieves, 
And slumber long and sweetly 
On beds of oaken leaves. — Bryant. 

6. I witnessed a striking incident in bird life which was 
very suggestive. — M. Thompson. 

7. Hast thou a charm to stay the morning star ? — Coleridge. 

8. He laid him down and closed his eyes. — Southey. 

9. Triumphant arch, that fill'st the sky 

When storms prepare to part, 
I ask not proud Philosophy 

To teach me what thou art. — Campbell. 

10. He that only rules by terror 

Doeth grievous wrong. —Tennyson. 

11. We judge ourselves by what we feel capable of doing, 
while others judge us by what we have already done. — Long- 
fellow. 

12. I fear thee, ancient mariner! 
I fear thy skinny hand ! 

And thou art long, and lank, and brown, 
As is the ribbed sea-sand. — Coleridge. 

13. Some are born great, some achieve greatness, and 
some have greatness thrust upon them. — Shakespeare. 



LESSONS IN ENGLISH. 



14. He who plants an oak looks forward to future ages, 
and plants for posterity. — Irving. 

15. Which of us shall be the soonest folded to that dim 

Unknown ? 
Which shall leave the other walking in this flinty path 
alone ? — Bryant. 



LESSON XXVIII. 

CLASSES OF ADJECTIVES. 

Point out the adjectives in the following sentences, and tell what 
each expresses : — 

1. I bring- fresh showers for the thirsting flowers. 

2. The sun is warm, the sky is clear. 

3. A little leaven leaveneth the whole lump. 

4. Three years she grew in sun and shower. 

An adjective that expresses quality or kind is a descriptive 
adjective; as, a happy boy; a narrow path; a wooden bench. 

Descriptive adjectives that are formed from proper nouns are called proper 
adjectives. They begin with capital letters; as, American forests; the English 
language. 

An adjective that points out something or denotes number or quantity 
is a limiting adjective ; as, this week; two hours; much trouble. 
A limiting adjective may be used — 
1. Simply to point out; as, this, that, the, an, yon, yonder. 



CLASSES OF ADJECTIVES. 67 

2. To express a definite number ; as, one, two, fourteen, fifty. 

3. To express an indefinite number or quantity; as, any, little, 
much, many, some. 

4. To show in what order things are arranged ; as, first, second, 
third. 

The adjectives the and an or a (the shortened form of an) are 
sometimes called articles. The is called the definite article. 
An or a is called the indefinite article. 

The is used to point out some particular person, thing, or class. 

An or a is used to point out any one person or thing of a class. 

An is used before a word beginning with a vowel sound ; as, 
an apple ; an initial ; an hour (h is silent) . 

A is used before a word beginning with a consonant sound ; as, 
a boat ; a day ; many a one (one begins with the consonant sound 
of w) ; a unit (unit begins with the consonant sound of y) . 

An adjective formed from two simple words is called a compound 
adjective ; as, — 

He turned the well-worn leaves. 

EXERCISE I. 

Point out the adjectives in the following sentences, state the 
office of each, and tell what kind of adjective it is : — 

1. Thirty-two statues of various sizes were found in this 
field. 

2. Its chief attractions were a never-failing breeze at night, 
good water, and a large garden in the centre of a cleared 
space. 

3. Hark ! 'tis the twanging horn o'er yonder bridge. — 
Cowper. 



LESSONS IN ENGLISIa. 



4. We met several men riding at a rapid pace. 

5. Across its antique portico 

Tall poplar trees their shadows throw. — Longfellow. 

6. This long march through the primeval forest and over 
rugged and trackless mountains was one of the most remark- 
able exploits of the war. —John Fiske. 

7. O blessings on his kindly voice and on his silver hair! 
— Tennyson. 

8. Suddenly there was a gentle little tap on the inside 
of the lid. — Hawthorne. 

9. The thirteen colonies were now free and independent 
States. — Hawthorne. 

10. A certain man fell among thieves. — Bible. 

11. Small service is true service while it lasts. —Wordsworth. 

12. All the air a solemn stillness holds. — Gray. 

13. With a slow and noiseless footstep 
Comes that messenger divine. — Longfellow. 

14. With fingers weary and worn, 

With eyelids heavy and red, 
A woman sat, in unwomanly rags, 
Plying her needle and thread. — Hood. 

15. All the little boys and girls, 
With rosy cheeks and flaxen curls, 

And sparkling eyes and teeth like pearls, 

Tripping and skipping, ran merrily after 

The wonderful music with shouting and laughter. 

— Brownino 



COMPARISON OF ADJECTIVES. 



69 



EXERCISE II. 

Tell whether an or a should be used before each of the 

following words : — 



hammock, 


image, 


hour, 


youth, 


poem, 


bird, 


mountain, 


honor, 


author, 


instant, 


eagle, 


useful, 


errand, 


union, 


orange, 


one. 




EXERCISE 


hi. 





■■**> 



Write sentences containing the following words used as 



adjectives : — 










strong, 


any, 


many, 


brittle, 


prompt, 


fair, 


all, 


curved, 


every, 


distant, 


both, 


dutiful, 


little, 


modern, 


neither, 


some, 


few, 


much, 


each, 


another, 


clear, 


brief, 


certain, 


other, 


several. 



LESSON XXIX. 



COMPARISON OF ADJECTIVES. 

Tell how many forms the adjective long has in the following sen- 
tences, and what each form expresses : — 

i. This work requires a long pencil. 

2. Your pencil is longer than mine. 

3. Here is the longest pencil in the box. 



70 LESSONS IN ENGLISH. 

Adjectives have different forms to express different degrees of 
quality. This change of form is called comparison. 

The form of an adjective that simply expresses the quality is 
called the positive degree ; as, long, short. 

The form of an adjective that expresses a higher or a lower 
degree of the quality is called the comparative degree ; as, 
longer, shorter. 

The comparative degree is used in comparing two things or 
classes of things ; as, Charles is older than Ralph ; Pears are dearer 
than apples. 

The form of an adjective that expresses the highest or the lowest 
degree of the quality is called the superlative degree ; as, longest, 
shortest. 

The superlative degree is used in comparing one thing with 
all others of the same kind ; as, Charles is the oldest boy in 
his class. 

Most adjectives of one syllable add er to the simple 
form of the adjective, to form the comparative, and est, to 
form the superlative. If the adjective ends in e, one e is 
omitted ; as, — 



POSITIVE. 


COMPARATIVE. 


SUPERLATIVE. 


long, 


longer, 


longest. 


wise, 


wiser, 


wisest. 



Most adjectives of more than one syllable prefix more 
or less to the simple form of the adjective, to form the 
comparative, and most or least, to form the superla- 
tive ; as, — 

POSITIVE. COMPARATIVE. SUPERLATIVE. 

careful, more careful, most careful, 

fortunate, less fortunate, least fortunate. 



COMPARISON OF ADJECTIVES. 



71 



A few adjectives of two syllables, ending in sounds that unite 
easily with the sound of er or est, may be compared by adding er 
or est; as, noble, happy, narrow, tender, pleasant. 

The following adjectives are compared irregularly : » — 



POSITIVE. 

bad, ) 
ill, ) 
far, 

[forth,] 

fore, 
good, 
late, 

little, 

many, 
muck, 

old, 



COMPARATIVE. 

worse, 

farther, 

further, 

former, 

better, 

latter, 
later, 

less, 

more, 

elder, 
older, 



SUPERLATIVE. 

worst. 

farthest. 

( furthest. 
\ furthermost, 

( foremost. 
\ first. 

best. 

last, 
latest. 

least. 

most. 

eldest, 
oldest. 



The two adjectives this and that are inflected for number ; thus, 



SINGULAR. 


PLURAL. 


this, 


these. 


that, 


those. 



72 LESSONS IN ENGLISH. 



EXERCISE I. 

Mention each adjective in the following sentences, name its 
degree, and tell what it modifies : — 

1. Choose the timbers with greatest care. — Longfellow. 

2. Of all the old festivals, however, that of Christmas 
awakens the strongest and most heartfelt associations. —Irving. 

3. He who ascends to mountain tops shall find 

The loftiest peaks most wrapt in clouds and snow. 

— Byron. 

4. The edges and corners of the box were carved with 
most wonderful skill. — Hawthorne. 

5. She is more precious than rubies. — Bible. 

6. We started immediately after an early luncheon, fol- 
lowed an excellent road all the way, and were back in time 
for dinner at half-past six. 

7. The day was cloudy, and the sea very rough. 

8. Alas ! when evil men are strong, 

No life is good, no pleasure long. — Wordsworth. 

9. He that is slow to anger is better than the mighty. 
— Bible. 

10. The noblest mind the best contentment has. — Spenser. 

11. This was the noblest Roman of them all. —Shakespeare. 

12. The greatest man is he who chooses the right with 
invincible resolution ; who resists the sorest temptations from 
within and from without ; who bears the heaviest burdens 
cheerfully; who is calmest and most fearless under menaces 
and frowns ; whose reliance on truth, on virtue, on God, is 
most unfaltering. — Channing. 



REVIEW OF ADJECTIVES. 



73 



EXERCISE II. 

Write the comparison of the following adjectives: 



narrow, 


noble, 


deep, 


famous 


, ancient, 


beautiful, 


clear, 


swift, 


good, 


expensive, 


generous, 


distant, 


formal, 


cheerful, earnest, 


lofty, 


merry, 


heavy, 


near, 


attractive, 


lovely, 


brief, 


many, 


bad, 


little. 


Examples. — POSITIVE. 


COMPARATIVE. 


SUPERLATIVE. 


noble, 


nobler, 




noblest. 


generous, 


more generous, 


most generous. 



LESSON XXX. 

REVIEW OF ADJECTIVES. 
EXERCISE I. 

What is an adjective? Into what two classes may adjectives be 
divided ? 

Name three adjectives that are used to point out things ; two 
adjectives that express a definite number ; two that express an 
indefinite number ; two that express an indefinite quantity ; two 
that indicate order of arrangement. 

State the difference in meaning between the and an or a. Dis- 
tinguish between the use of an and a, and illustrate by examples. 

Name two adjectives that change their form to denote the plural 
number. Give their plural forms. 

What is meant by the comparison of adjectives? What are the 



74 LESSONS IN ENGLISH. 

three degrees of comparison called? Define each, and give an 
example. 

How is the comparative formed? Give examples. How is the 
superlative formed? Give examples. 

What is meant by irregular comparison? Illustrate. 

Mention two adjectives that are compared by means of suffixes ; 
two by means of adverbs ; two that are compared irregularly j and 
two that are not usually compared. 

Give the comparative and superlative forms of few; heavy; 
amiable; swift; useful; fierce ; mighty; witty ; gentle; good; bad; 
late; little ; ill; much; many. 



EXERCISE II. 

Parse the adjectives in the following sentences : — 
To parse an adjective, tell — 

i. The kind of adjective. 

2. Its degree, if the adjective can be compared. 

3. Its construction. 

Example.— The wind was cold. 

*. The is a limiting adjective, modifying the noun wind. 

2. Cold is a descriptive adjective of the positive degree. It 
completes the meaning of the verb ivas, and modifies the noun 
wind. 

1. It is the most beautiful shrub that ever sprang out of 
the earth. 

2. Every good tree bringeth forth good fruit, but a cor- 
rupt tree bringeth forth evil fruit. 



REVIEW OF ADJECTIVES. 75 

3. Such pleasures nerve the arm for strife, 
Bring joyous thoughts and golden dreams. 

4. This door led into a passage out of which opened 
four sleeping-rooms. 

5. Wide is the gate, and broad is the way. 

6. In the middle of the eighteenth century there were 
four New England colonies. — Fiske. 

7. Birds of the polar areas of snow and ice are white, 
those of the tropics are vari-colored and brilliant-hued. 

— M. Thompson. 

8. Straight and strong and magnificently plumed, the 
palms rose to an average height of seventy or eighty feet. 

— A. B. Edwards. 

9. Spring is the season when the volume of bird-song 
poured round the world is incomparably stronger, fuller, and 
sweeter than at any other. — M. Thompson. 

10. Lo ! while we are gazing, in swifter haste 

Stream down the snows, till the air is white. 

— Bryant. 

11. The habit of observation is the habit of clear and 
decisive gazing. Not by a first casual glance, but by a 
steady deliberate aim of the eye are the rare and character- 
istic things discovered. — John Burroughs. 

12. A form more fair, a face more sweet, 
Ne'er hath it been my lot to meet. — Whittier. 

13. A beautiful form is better than a beautiful face; a 
beautiful behavior is better than a beautiful form : it gives a 
higher pleasure than statues or pictures ; it is the finest of 
the fine arts. — Emerson. 



76 LESSONS IN ENGLISH. 

LESSON XXXI. 

f TRANSITIVE AND INTRANSITIVE VERBS. 

Point out the verb in each of the following sentences, name its 
subject,* and tell which word limits the action expressed by the 
verb : — 

i. The sexton rang the bell. 

2. A boy delivered the message. 

3. The frost killed the plant. 

The noun or pronoun that limits the action expressed by a verb 
is the object* of the verb; as, We crossed the bridge. 

Tell which verbs in the following sentences take objects to com- 
plete their meaning, and which do not take objects : — 

i. The traveller sold his horse. 

2. Bees gather honey. 

3. The sun shines. 

4. The ship sailed. 

A verb that takes an object is called a transitive verb ; as, 
Henry threw the ball. 

A verb that does not take an object is called an intransitive 
verb ; as, Birds fly. 

The same word may be used as a transitive verb in one sentence, 
and as an intransitive verb in another ; as, — 

The wind blows the dust. (Transitive.) 
The wind blows. (Intransitive.) 

* These terms as applied to nouns refer to what is called the grammatical or 
hare subject, and object, and not to the logical or complete subject, and object. 



TRANSITIVE AND INTRANSITIVE VERBS. 77 

Some intransitive verbs have a complete meaning in themselves ; 
as, — 

The rain falls. 

Other intransitive verbs must be followed by a noun or an adjec- 
tive to complete their meaning ; as, — 

i. He was a. statesman. 
2. The day is cloudy. 

EXERCISE I. 

Select the transitive verbs, and name the subject and the 
object of each: — 

i. He shrugged his shoulders, shook his head, cast up his 
eyes, but said nothing. —Irving. 

2. Each takes his seat, and each receives his share. 

3. We scatter seeds with careless hand. 

4. Can the blind lead the blind ?— Bible. 

5. Do many good works, and speak few vanities. — 
Chaucer. 

6. We carved not a line, and we raised not a stone, 

But we left him alone in his glory. — Wolfe. 

7. The heavens declare the glory of God, and the firma- 
ment showeth his handiwork. — Bible. 

8. The warrior bowed his crested head. — Hemans. 

9. The doe lifted her head a little with a quick motion, 
and turned her ear to the south. Had she heard something ? 
— C. D. Warner. 



78 LESSONS IN ENGLISH. 

io. In the cold moist earth we laid her, when the forests 
cast the leaf, 
And we wept that one so lovely should have a life 
SO brief . — Bryant. 



EXERCISE II. 

Tell whether the verbs in the following sentences are transi- 
tive or intransitive, mention the objects of the transitive verbs, 
and tell what complete the meanings of the incomplete intransi- 
tive verbs: — 

1. A tear stood in his bright blue eye. — Longfellow. 

2. A rill of water trickles down the cliff. — Hawthorne. 

3. The Piper advanced, and the children followed. — 
Browning. 

4. My heart leaps up when I behold a rainbow in the 
sky. — Wordsworth. 

5. The daffodil is our doorside queen. —Bryant. 

6. The next day Congress took the formal vote upon the 
resolution. — Fiske. 

7. Behold the fowls of the air. —Bible. 

8. The fish swam by the castle wall, 

And they seemed joyous, each and all. — Byron. 

9. Open then I flung the shutter, when, with many a 

flirt and flutter, 
In there stepped a stately raven of the saintly days 
of yore. — Poe. 

10. The fair breeze blew, the white foam flew. — Coleridge. 



ACTIVE AND PASSIVE VOICE. 79 



EXERCISE III. 

Write sente?ices containing the following words used as 
transitive verbs : — 

learn, drink, write, watch, set, 

speaks, saw, flew, raise, lay. 

EXERCISE IV. 

Write sentences containing the following words used as 
intransitive verbs : — 

roar, grow, fall, write, watch, 

speaks, lie, sit, rise, flew. 




7^ 



LESSON XXXII. 

ACTIVE AND PASSIVE VOICE. 

Tell in how many ways each thought is expressed in the following 
sentences : — 

i. The governor signed the bill. 

2. The bill was signed by the governor. 

3. A hound chased the deer. 

4. The deer was chased by a hound. 

A transitive verb may represent its subject as acting or as being 
acted upon. 

A transitive verb that represents its subject as acting is said to be 
in the active voice ; as, Columbus discovered America. 



80 LESSONS IN ENGLISH. 

A transitive verb that represents its subject as being acted upon 
is said to be in the passive voice ; as, America was discovered by 
Columbus. 

The object of the verb in the active form becomes the subject of 
the verb in the passive form. The active voice makes the agent 
prominent, while the passive voice makes the object of the action 
prominent. 

Some verbs usually intransitive become transitive by means of a 
preposition, and take the passive voice ; as, — 

He disposed of the goods. 

The goods were disposed of by him. 



EXERCISE I. 

Tell the voice of each transitive verb in the following sen- 
tences, giving in each case a reason for yonr statement : — 

i. The frightened animal sought the open country. 

2. Our guide had never visited the cave. 

3. The building was destroyed by fire, but some of the 
furniture was saved. 

4. The guest was admitted into the parlor. 

5. The portrait attracted his notice at once. 

6. The petition was signed by a number of prominent 
citizens. 

7. He holds him with his glittering eye. — Coleridge. 

8. Many interesting discoveries were made among these 
broken cliffs. — Hawthorne. 

9. He shrugged his shoulders, shook his head, cast up his 
eyes, but said nothing. — Irving. 



MODE. 81 



10. The farmer swung the scythe or turned the hay, 

And 'twixt the heavy swaths his children were at play. 

— Bryant. 
ii. On Christmas eve the bells were rung. —Scott. 
12. The schoolmaster swept and smoothed the ground 
before the door, trimmed the long grass, trained the ivy and 
creeping plants which hung their drooping heads in melan- 
choly neglect ; and gave to the outer walls a cheery air of 
home. —Dickens. 

EXERCISE II. 

Rewrite the sentences in the preceding exercise, changing the 
voice of eacJi transitive verb. 



LESSON XXXIII. 

MODE. 



X 



Find in the following sentences a verb that asserts something as 
a fact, one that asserts something as doubtful, and one that expresses 
a command : — 

i. He speaks distinctly. 

2. If he be at home, we shall see him. 

3. Speak the truth. 

The manner of asserting is called the mode of the verb. 
A verb that asserts a thing as a fact or asks a direct question is 
in the indicative mode ; as, — 

The river is deep. 
Is the river deep ? 



82 LESSONS IN ENGLISH. 

A verb that expresses something as conditional or doubtful is in 
the subjunctive mode; as, — 

If he were ill, he would inform us. 
Take heed, lest thou fall. 

A verb in the subjunctive mode is generally preceded by if, though, 
lest, unless, except, or some similar word. 

The verb in a conditional clause is not always in the subjunctive 
mode. When the verb expresses doubt or denial it is in the sub- 
junctive mode, but when it expresses certainty it is in the indicative 
mode ; as, — 

If the law be [Subjunctive] unjust, it should be repealed. 
If the law is [Indicative] unjust, it must be enforced. 

A verb that expresses a command or an entreaty is in the 
imperative mode ; as, — 

Close the gate. 
Forgive us our debts. 

EXERCISE I. 

Tell what each verb expresses in the following sentences, and 
name its mode : — 

i. Consider the lilies of the field. —Bible. 

2. The blue smoke widened slowly upward through the 
quiet August atmosphere. — Lowell. 

3. I stand upon my native hills again. 

4. Thine own friend and thy father's friend, forsake not. 

5. If you were in my place you would think differently. 

6. Though this be madness, yet there is method in't. 

7. Turn away thine eyes, lest they behold vanity. 

8. Though he slay me, yet will I trust him. 



A 






THE INFINITIVE. 83 



9. Last night, the moon had a golden ring, 

And to-night no moon we see. — Longfellow. 

10. If fortune serve me, I'll requite this kindness. — 

Shakespeare. 

EXERCISE II. 

1. Write three sente?ices containing verbs in the indicative 
mode. 

2. Write three sentences containing verbs in the subjunctive 
mode. 

3. Write three sentences containing verbs in the imperative 
mode. 



LESSON XXXIV. 

THE INFINITIVE. 

Select from the following sentences forms of verbs that do not 
assert, but that name actions, like nouns, and tell how they are 

used : — 

1. To err is human. 

2. They intend to return soon. 

3. Doing nothing is tiresome. 

The form of the verb that does not assert but that merely names 
action or being, like a noun, is called the infinitive. 

There are two infinitives, the simple infinitive, and the infini- 
tive in ing. 

The simple infinitive is the simple form of the verb, alone or pre- 
ceded by to ; as, — 

Let him go, I expect to go. 



84 LESSONS IN ENGLISH. 

The simple form, without to, is used alone, or after a few of the 
most common verbs, such as may, can, must, shall, will, bid, dare, 
do, kt, make, need, hear, and see; as, Why flee? Do not flee. 

The form with to is employed in most of the uses of the simple 
infinitive.* 

The infinitive in ing, also called the participial infinitive or 

gerund, is formed by adding ing to the simple form of the verb; 

as, — 

Learn the luxury of doing good. 

The infinitive, like a noun, may be used as subject or object ; 
and, like a verb, it may take an object, if transitive, or may have 
modifiers ; as, — 

i. To retreat is impossible. 

2. I decided to remain at home. 

3. There is no prospect of finding the treasure. 

EXERCISE I. 

Classify the infinitives in the following sentences, giving 
reasons for your statements : — 

1. I like to look on a scene like this. 

2. Let music swell the breeze. 

3. The rain had ceased to patter, and now began to fall 
with a steady determination. 

4. There was no difficulty in finding the river. 

5. But where to find that happiest spot below, 

Who can direct, when all pretend to know ? — Goldsmith. 

* To was originally a preposition, used with the infinitive only in certain rela- 
tions. It is now a mere prefix, or sign of the infinitive in most of its uses. As 
this is the only one of the infinitive forms that is distinctive, it is commonly 
named as the infinitive. The other forms are, however, equally true infinitives in 
origin and in use. 






THE PARTICIPLE. 85 



6. A man has no more right to say an uncivil thing than 
to act one. —Dr. Johnson. 

7. He hears the parson pray and preach. — Longfellow. 

8. As he approached the stream, his heart began to 
thump. — Irving. 

9. But it must be understood that we did not go to see 
the Pyramids. We went only to look at them. — A. B. Edwards. 

10. There are two opposite ways by which some men 
make a figure in the world ; one by talking faster than they 
think, and the other by holding their tongues and not think- 
ing at all. — Irving. 

EXERCISE II. 

Write sentences containing (1) simple infinitives, (2) participial 
infinitives formed from the following verbs : — 

find, break, choose, lose, sell, 

build, hear, spend, meet, have. 



LESSON XXXV. 

THE PARTICIPLE. 

Tell of what verbs the italicized words are forms, and which parts 
of speech they most resemble : — 

1. Out came the children running. 

2. We beheld a horseman approaching leisurely. 

3. The company, seated round the fire, welcomed 
the stranger. 

4. We sailed by an island covered with large trees. 



LESSONS IN ENGLISH-. 



The form of the verb that is part adjective and part verb is called 
a participle. The participle does not assert, but assumes or implies 
action or being. It qualifies a noun or pronoun, like an adjective, 
and takes modifiers like a verb. A participle from a transitive verb 
takes an object. 

A participle that denotes unfinished action is called a present or 
imperfect participle ; as, hearing, writing. 

A participle that denotes finished action is called a past or 
perfect participle ; as, heard, written. 

The present participle and the participial infinitive have the same 
form, but the participle is partly verb and partly adjective, while the 
infinitive is partly verb and partly noun. The verbal noun derived from 
the verb, and the participial adjective, also end in ing ; as, — 

i. He hears his daughter's voice, singing [Participle] in 
the village choir. — Longfellow. 

2. They spent the evening in singing [Infinitive] carols. 

3. The time of the singing [Noun] of birds has come. 
— Bible. 

4. A singing [Adjective] bird on every bough. — Howrrr. 

The verbal noun may be distinguished from the participial infini- 
tive by taking an article before it, and by not being followed by an 
object. The participial adjective may be distinguished from the par- 
ticiple, by expressing not action but quality, and by not taking an 
object. 

EXERCISE I. 

Select the participles in the following sentences, mention the 
kind, and tell what each modifies: — 

1. I heard my own mountain goats bleating aloft.— 
Campbell. 



THE PARTICIPLE. 87 



2. Toiling, — rejoicing, — sorrowing, 

Onward through life he goes. — Longfellow. 

3. The passengers, warned by the helmsman, retreated 
into the cabin. — Lossing. 

4. While I lay musing on my pillow, I heard the sound 
of little feet pattering outside of the door. — Irving. 

5. All precious things, discovered late, 

To those that seek them issue forth. —Tennyson. 

6. Heaped in the hollows of the grove, the withered 
leaves lie dead. — Bryant. 

7. Looking out of the window, I saw a crow perched 
upon the edge of the nest. — Burroughs. 

8. Yonder sat a tailor cross-legged, making a waistcoat, 
near him, stretched on his face at full length, sprawled a 
basket-maker with his half-woven basket and bundles of 
rushes beside him ; and here, close against the main entrance, 
lay a blind man and his dog; the master asleep, the dog 
keeping watch. — Amelia B. Edwards. 

9. Watching their leader's beck and will, 

All silent there they stood, and still. — Scott. 

10. Truth, crushed to earth, shall rise again. — Bryant. 



EXERCISE II. 



1 . Copy from any standard writer six sentences containing 
present participles. Underline the participles. 

2. Copy from any standard writer six sentences containing 
past participles. 



88 LESSONS IN ENGLISH. 



EXERCISE III. 



Distinguish between the different forms of the verb ir ing 
in the following sentences, and tell how each is used: — 

i. The darting swallows soar and sing. 

2. After standing a long time at the end of the wharf, 
gazing seaward, the strangers began to stray into the town. 

3. Coming back we met two or three more regiments. 

4. I had now given up all expectation of finding the 
road. 

5. One could wander for miles through this forest with- 
out meeting a person, or hearing a sound, other than the 
occasional chatter of a squirrel, the song of a bird, or the 
sighing of the wind through the branches overhead. 

6. Hark ! from the murmuring clods I hear 
Glad voices of the coming year. — Bryant. 

7. There's a merry brown thrush sitting up in a tree 
— Lucy Larcom. 

8. But sorrow returned with the dawning of morn, 

And the voice in my dreaming ear melted away. 

— Campbell, 



the verb in ing 









EXERCISE IV. 




Write 


sentences 


containing a form 


of 


used — 












, 




I. 


As 


an infinitive. 








2. 


As 


a participle. 








3- 


As 


a noun. 








4- 


As 


an adjective. 





TENSE. 89 

LESSON XXXVI. X~ 

TENSE. 

Tell what time each verb expresses in the following sentences, and 
mention the different forms of the verb : — 

i. I see the light. 

2. I saw the light. 

3. I shall see the lieht. 

o 

The form of the verb that expresses the time of the action is 
called tense. 

Since there are three divisions of time — present, past, and future, 
there are three leading tenses — present, past, and future. 

A verb that denotes present time is in the present tense ; as, 
I hear. 

A verb that denotes past time is in the past tense ; as, 
I heard. 

A verb that denotes future time is in the future tense ; as, I 
shall hear. 

Besides these three leading tenses, there are three perfect 
tenses, which denote action as finished or completed. 

A verb that denotes an action as completed at the present time is 
in the present perfect tense; as, — 

I have heard the speaker. 
He has finished the work. 

A verb that denotes an action as having been completed before 
some past time is in the past perfect or pluperfect tense ; as, — 

G* 



90 LESSONS IN ENGLISH. 

He had heard the report. 

A verb that denotes an action to be completed before some future 
time is in the future perfect tense; as, — 

I shall have heard the lecture. 
He will have heard the lecture. 



Formation of Tenses. 

Tell which tenses are indicated by the form of the verb itself, and 
which are made by the aid of other verbs : — 

TENSES OF THE INDICATIA'E MODE. 

Present. I write. Present Perfect. I have written. 

Past. I wrote. Past Perfect. I had written. 

Future. \ shall write. Future Perfect. I shall have written. 

Only two tenses, the present and the past, are indicated by the 
form of the verb itself. The other tenses are expressed by the aid 
of other verbs, called auxiliary verbs. 

The future tense is made up of the verb shall or will and the 
simple infinitive of the verb expressing the action. 

Shall is used in the first person, and will, in the second and third persons, to 
announce future action. (See Lesson XL.) 

The present-perfect tense is made up of the present of the aux- 
iliary verb have and the perfect participle of the principal verb. 

The past-perfect tense is made up of the past of the auxiliary 
verb have and the perfect participle of the principal verb. 

The future-perfect tense is made up of the auxiliary shall or will 
and the perfect infinitive of the verb expressing the action. 



TENSE. 91 

EXERCISE I. 

Mention the verbs in the followiiig sentences, and name the 
tense of each : — 

i. We started late in the afternoon of the first day. 

2. There is a land of pure delight. 

3. I had now come in sight of the house. 

4. A ship-of-war arrived unexpectedly in the bay. 

5. The walls of this most curious and interesting fortress 
have probably lost much of their original height. 

6. Over the sea our galleys went. 

7. The moon had risen, but the breeze had dropped. 

8. A cuckoo's nest is a very simple affair, but it will 
bear close study. — M. Thompson. 

9. Short space he stood, — then waved his hand : 
Down sunk the disappearing band. — Scott. 

10. It is a strange thing how little in general people 
know about the sky. — Ruskin. 

11. Other soldiers heard the noise, and ran hastily from 
the barracks to assist their comrades. — Hawthorne. 

12. My heart leaps up when I behold 

A rainbow in the sky : 
So was it when my life began ; 
So is it now I am a man. — Wordsworth. 

EXERCISE II. 

Write six tense forms for each of the following verbs, to be 
ised with the S7tbject I: — 

find, break, come, drive, forget, 

give, know, see, draw, sell. 



LESSONS IN ENGLISH. 



LESSON XXXVII. 

PERSON AND NUMBER. 

Tell how many forms of the verb hear are used with the differ- 
ent subjects in the following, and give the endings of the special 
forms : — 

SINGULAR. PLURAL. 

First Person. I hear. We hear. 

Second Person. Thou hearest. You hear. 
Third Person. He hears. They hear. 

The different forms that a verb takes to correspond to the per- 
son and the number of its subject are called person and number 
forms. 

The second person singular has the ending est or st in both the 
present and past tenses of the indicative mode ; as, — 

Present. Thou planted; thou sees*. 
Past. Thou planted** ; thou sawsf. 

The third person singular has, in the present indicative, the end- 
ing s or es and the old forms eth or th; as, — 

She sleeps or she sleeper. 

He does or he doth or he doeth. 

The forms with thou and the forms in th or eth are now seldom 
used, except in prayer and in poetry. 

With the exception of the verb be, the first person singular and 
the plural forms for all the persons have no endings to mark person 
or number. 

The verb be has different forms for the singular and the plural in 
the present and past tenses of the indicative mode ; as, — 



FORMS OF VERBS. 



SINGULAR. PLUKAL. 

I am. We, you, or they are. 

I was. We, you, or they were. 

EXERCISE. 

Write the forms of the following verbs required for the 
subjects I, thou, he, and we, in the indicative present: — 



draw, 


hear, 


move, 


speak, 


sing, 


see, 


stand, 


choose, 


lift, 


come, 


find, 


forget, 


know, 


take, 


stand. 



LESSON XXXVIII. 

FORMS OF VERBS. 



>< 



Tell how the past tenses of the following verbs are formed : — 



PRESENT. PAST. PERF. PART. PRESENT. 

plant, planted, planted. fall, 

look, looked, looked. throw, 

live, lived, lived. efive, 



PAST. PERF. PART. 

fell, fallen. 

threw, thrown, 
srave, given. 



A verb that forms its past tense by adding cd or d to the present 
is a regular verb ; as, walk, walked; move, moved. 

A verb that does not form its past tense by adding ed or 
d to the present is an irregular verb; as, drive, drove; give, 
gave. 



94 



LESSONS IN ENGLISH. 



Verbs are divided into the strong and the weak conjugations. 

A verb that forms its past tense by changing the vowel of the 
present, without adding anything to the present, is a strong verb ; 
as, fall, fell; throw, threw. 

The perfect participle of all strong verbs once ended in en or n, 
but this suffix has now disappeared from many verbs. As the strong 
verbs are the oldest verbs in the language, they are said to belong 
to the old conjugation. 

A verb that forms its past tense by adding ed, d, or t to the 
present, or without any change, is a weak verb ; as, walk, walked; 
move, moved; deal, dealt. 

As the weak verbs include all new verbs and all new forms of 
old verbs, they are said to belong to the new conjugation. 

Most weak verbs are regular, but some are irregular; as, — 





PRESENT. 


PAST. 


Regular. 


j plant, 
\ move, 


planted, 
moved. 


Irregular, 


( keep, 
\ cut, 


kept, 
cut. 



A few weak verbs have both regular and irregular forms ; as, 
build, builded or built; kneel, kneeled or knelt. 

Some verbs have both strong and weak forms, or mixed forms ; 



as, ■ 



PRESENT. 

thrive, 

heave, 
sow, 



PAST. 

throve [strong], 
thrived [weak], 
hove [strong], 
heaved [weak], 

sowed [weak], 



PERF. PART. 

thriven [strong]. 
thrived [weak] . 

heaved [weak]. 

sown [strong]. 
sowed [weak]. 



FORMS OF VERBS. 



95 



The present tense, the past tense, and the perfect participle are 
called the principal parts of a verb, since all the other parts can 
be found when these three parts are known. 

A verb that lacks any of the principal parts is called defective ; 
as, may, shall. 



List of Irregular Verbs. 



I. -IRREGULAR VERBS OF THE OLD CONJUGATION. 



PRESENT. PAST. 


PEEP. PART. 


PRESENT. PAST. 


PERF. PART. 


abide, 
arise, 


abode, 
arose, 


abode, 
arisen. 


chide, 


chid, 


(chidden. 
1 chid. 


awake, 


( awoke, awoke. 
' awaked, awaked* 


choose, 
cleave 


chose, 
( clove, 


chosen, 
cloven. 


bear ) , 

} bore, 

[to bring forth], I 


born. 


[to split], 

cling, 


f cleft, 
clung, 


cleft. 
clung. 


bear 

[to carry], 

beat, 
begin, 


| bore, 

beat, 
began, 


borne. 

beaten, 
begun. 


come, 

dig, 

do, 


came, 
j dug, 
I digged, 

did, 


come, 
dug. 
digged. 
done. 


behold, 
bid, 


beheld, 

( bade, 
Ibid, 


( beholden, 
i beheld. 

bidden. 

bid. 


draw, 
drink, 
drive, 


drew, 

drank, 

drove, 


drawn. 
( drunken. 
( drunk. 

driven. 


bind, 


bound, 


bound. 


eat, 


ate, 


eaten. 


hiff> 


bit, 


( bitten, 
(bit. 


fall, 


fell, 


fallen. 


U1LC, 


fight, 


fought, 


fought. 


blow, 


blew, 


blown. 


find, 


found, 


found. 


break, 


broke, 


broken. 


fling, 


flung, 


flung. 


burst, 


burst, 


burst. 


fly, 


flew, 


flown. 



Forms in Italics are weak. 



LESSONS IN ENGLISH. 



PRESENT. PAST. 


PERF. PART. 


PRESENT. PAST. 


PERF. PART 


forbear, 


forbore, 


forborne. 


shrink, 


\ shrank, 


shrunken. 


forget, 


forgot, 


forgotten. 


' shrunk, 


shrunk. 


forsake, 
freeze, 

get, 


forsook, 
froze, 

got, 


forsaken. 

frozen. 
( gotten. 
1 got. 


sing, 

sink, 
sit, 


sang, 
sank, 
sat, 


sung. 
( sunken. 
( sunk. 

sat. 


give, 


gave, 


given. 


slay, 


slew, 


slain. 


go, 
grind, 


went, 
ground, 


gone, 
ground. 


slide, 


slid, 


\ slidden. 
1 slid. 


grow, 
hang, 

heave, 


grew, 

j hun g> 
' Jianged, 
\ hove, 
( heaved, 


grown. 

hung. 

hanged. 

heaved. 


sling, 
slink, 
smite, 
speak, 


slung, 
slunk, 
smote, 
spoke, 


slung, 
slunk, 
smitten, 
spoken. 


hide, 


hid, 


i hidden, 
(hid. 


spin, 
spring, 


spun, 
sprang, 


spun, 
sprung. 


hold, 


held, 


held. 


stand, 


stood, 


stood. 


know, 


knew, 


known. 


steal, 


stole, 


stolen. 


lie, 


lay, 


lain. 


sting, 


stung, 


stung. 


ride, 


rode, 


ridden. 


stride, 


strode, 


stridden. 


ring, 
rise, 


rang, 
rose, 


rung, 
risen. 


strike, 


struck, 


[ stricken. 
' struck. 


run, 


ran, 


run. 


string, 


strung, 


strung. 


see, 


saw, 


seen. 


strive, 


strove, 


striven. 


seethe, 


I sod, 
* seethed, 


sodden. 
seethed. 


swear, 
swim, 


swore, 
swam, 


sworn, 
swum. 


shake, 


shook, 


shaken. 


swing, 


swung, 


swung. 


shine, 


shone, 


shone. 


take, 


took, 


taken. 


shoot, 


shot, 


shot. 


tear, 


tore, 


torn. 



FORMS OF VERBS. 



97 



PRESENT. 


PAST. 


PEKF. PART. 


PRESENT. 


PAST. 


PERF. PART. 


thrive, 


throve, 


thriven. 


wear, 


wore, 


worn. 


thrived, 


thrived. 


weave, 


wove, 


woven. 


throw, 


threw, 


thrown. 


win, 


won, 


won. 


tread, 


trod, 


( trodden, 
i trod. 


wind, 
wring, 


wound, 
wrung, 


wound, 
wrung. 


wake, 


( woke, 
( waked, 


waked. 


write, 


wrote, 


written. 



EXERCISE I. 

Make a list of strong verbs which have different forms 
for the present tense, the past tense, and the perfect parti- 
ciple. 

EXERCISE II. 

Make a list of strong verbs which have the same form 
for the past tense and the perfect participle. 

EXERCISE III. 

Make a list of verbs which have two different forms for 
either the past tense or the past participle, or for both. 



EXERCISE IV. 

Write the principal parts of the follozving verbs : — 
beat, blow, choose, do, fly, 



forget, 


freeze 


give, 


hold, 


know, 


lie, 


ride, 


ring, 


see, 


sit, 


speak, 


steal, 


swim, 


wear, 


write, 


cleave, 


come, 


run, 


hang, 


smite. 



LESSONS IN ENGLISH. 



II. -IRREGULAR VERBS OF THE NEW CONJUGATION. 



PRESENT. PAST. 


PERF. PART. 


PRESENT. PAST. 


PERF. PART. 


bend, 


bent, 


( bended. 
1 bent. 


gild, 


j gilded, 
1 gilt, 


gilded, 
gilt. 


bereave 


i bereaved 


bereaved. 


gird, 


girt, 


girt. 


' ( bereft, 


bereft. 


have, 


had, 


had. 


beseech 


, besought 


besought. 


hear, 


heard, 


heard. 


breed, 


bred, 


bred. 


hide, 


hid, 


( hidden. 


bring, 


brought, 


brought. 


1 hid. 


build, 


( builded, 


builded. 


hit, 


hit, 


hit. 


1 built, 


built. 


hurt, 


hurt, 


hurt. 


burn, 


{ burned, 


burned. 


keep, 


kept, 


kept. 


I burnt, 


burnt. 


kneel, 


( kneeled, 


kneeled. 


buy, 


bought, 


bought. 


( knelt, 


knelt. 


cast, 


cast, 


cast. 


knit, 


knit, 


knit. 


catch, 


caught, 


caught. 


lay, 


laid, 


laid. 


clothe, 


( clothed, 


clothed. 


lead, 


led, 


led. 


! clad, 


clad. 


lean, 


{ leaned, 
i leant, 


leaned. 


cost, 


cost, 


cost. 


leant. 


creep, 


crept, 


crept. 


leap, 


( leaped, 
' leapt, 


leaped. 


cut, 


cut, 


cut. 


leapt. 


deal, 


dealt, 


dealt. 


learn, 


( learned, 


learned. 


dream, 


( dreamed, 
( dreamt, 


dreamed. 


( learnt, 


learnt. 


dreamt. 


leave, 


left, 


left. 


dwell, 


( dwelled, 
( dwelt, 


dwelled. 


lend, 


lent, 


lent. 


dwelt. 


let, 


let, 


let. 


feed, 


fed, 


fed. 


light, 


j lighted, 

hit, 


lighted. 


feel, 


felt, 


felt. 


lit. 


flee, 


fled 


fled. 


lose, 


lost, 


lost 



FORMS OF VERBS. 



PRESENT. PAST. 


PERF. PART. 


PRESENT. PAST. 


PERF. PART. 


make, 


made, 


made. 


sleep, 


slept, 


slept. 


mean, 


meant, 


meant. 


slit, 


slit, 


slit. 


meet, 


met, 


met. 


smell, 
sow, 


( smelled, 
( smelt, 

sowed, 


smelled. 


pass, 
pay, 


passed, 
paid, 


( passed. 
( past, 
paid. 


smelt. 
( sown. 
( sowed. 




( penned, 
( pent, 


penned. 


speed, 


sped, 


sped. 


pen, 


pent. 


spell, 


j spelled, 
( spelt, 


spelled 


put, 


put, 


put. 


spelt. 


quit, 


( quitted, 
\ quit, 


quitted. 


spend, 


spent, 


spent. 


quit. 


spill, 


spilt, 


spilt. 


read, 


read, 


read. 


spread, 


spread, 


spread. 


rend, 

say, 


rent, 
said, 


rent, 
said. 


strew, 


strewed, 


( strewn. 
( strewed. 


seek, 


sought, 


sought. 


sweat, 


sweat, 


sweat. 


sell, 


sold, 


sold. 


sweep, 


swept, 


swept. 


send, 


sent, 


sent. 


teach, 


taught, 


taught. 


set, 


set, 


set. 


tell, 


told, 


told. 


shed, 


shed, 


shed. 


think, 


thought, 


thought. 


shoe, 


shod, 


shod. 


thrust, 


thrust, 


thrust. 


show, 


showed, 


( shown* 
( showed. 


weep, 
wet, 


wept, 
wet, 


wept, 
wet. 


shred, 


shred, 


shred. 


work 


( wrought 
( worked, 


wrought. 


shut, 


shut, 


shut. 




worked. 






EXER 


DISE I. 






Make a list of 


irregular z 


veak verbs which change their 


form 


for the past 


tense and t> 


he perfect participle. 





* Forms in Italics are strorig. 



100 LESSONS IN ENGLISH. 



EXEKCISE II. 

Make a list of irregular weak verbs which have the same 
form for the present tense, the past tense, and the perfect 
participle. 

EXERCISE III. 

Make a list of weak verbs which have both regular and 
irregular forms. 

EXERCISE IV. 



Write the 


principal parts 


of the 


folio 


wing verbs : — 


burn, 


creep, 


flee, 




hear, lay, 


let, 


read, 


set, 




show, sweep, 


cost, 


have, 


lead, 




pay, say, 


sell, 


shoe, 


sleep, 




shut, speed. 



LESSON XXXIX. 

AUXILIARY VERBS. 

Compare the italicized verbs in the following sentences, and tell 
which express their own proper meanings and which help other verbs 
to express their meanings : — 

i. Trees have roots. 

2. The leaves have fallen. 

3. It was an ancient mariner. 

4. How cheerfully the week was spent ! 



AUXILIARY VERBS. 101 

Verbs that are used to help or complete the conjugation of 
other verbs, are said to be used as auxiliaries, and are then 
called auxiliary verbs ; as, — 

The rain had ceased. 



EXERCISE I. 

Poijit out the verbs in the following sentences, and show 
are used as auxiliary verbs : — 

i. The days are cold, the nights are long. 

2. The sower's task is done. — Bryant. 

3. Some of the men had no muskets, and almost all 
were without bayonets. — Hawthorne. 

4. Last night the moon had a golden ring. 

5. I have had playmates: I have had companions.— 
Charles Lamb. 

6. By fairy hands their knell is rung. — Collins. 

7. There was a sound of revelry by night. —Byron. 

8. The shades of night were falling fast. — Longfellow. 

9. They know not what they do. 

10. He did receive the message. 

11. His face did shine as the sun. 

12. I shall not look upon his like again. 

13. If I will that he tarry till I come, what is that to 
thee ? — Bible. 

14. He will not do the work. 

15. Who trusts the strength will with the burden grow. 

16. The mountain and the squirrel 
Had a quarrel. 



102 LESSONS IN ENGLISH. 

The verbs have, do, shall, will, and be are used as auxiliary verbs 
with the participles or infinitives of other verbs to form tense and 
voice. They have the following forms : — 

I. — The Verb Have. 



PRESENT TENSE 






PAST TENSE. 


PERFECT PARTICIPLE. 


Have. 






Had. 






Had. 






INDICATIVE 


MODE. 






PRESENT 


TENSE. 








PAST 


TENSE. 


Singular. 


Plural 




Singular. 


Plural. 



i. I have, i. We have, I. I had, I. We had, 

2. Thou hast, 2. You have, 2. Thou hadst, 2. You had, 

3. He has. 3. They have. 3. He had. 3. They had. 



SUBJUNCTIVE MODE. 
present tense. past tense. 

Singular. Plural. Singular. Plural. 

1. (If) I have, 1. (If) we have, 1. (If) I had, 1. (If) we had, 

2. (If) thou 2. (If) you have, 2. (If) thou 2. (If) you had, 

have, had, 

3. (If) he have. 3. (If) they have. 3. (If) he had. 3. (If) they had. 

IMPERATIVE MODE. 
Singular. Plural. 

Have (thou). Have (ye or you). 

INFINITIVES. PARTICIPLES. 

(To) have, Present. Having. 

Having. Perfect. Had. 



AUXILIARY VERBS. 103 

The verb have is used as auxiliary with the perfect participle of a 
verb, to form the perfect tenses, each part of have forming the corre- 
sponding perfect ; as, — 

Present Perfect. I have seen. 

Past Perfect. I had seen. 

Future Perfect. I shall have seen. 

Perfect Infinitives. (To) have seen ; having seen. 

Perfect Participle. Having seen. 

When have expresses possession it is an independent verb ; as, — 
Birds of the air have nests. 

EXEKCISE II. 

Tell whether the verb have in the following sentences is an 
independent verb or an auxiliary verb, giving a reason in 
each case: — 

i. If you have tears, prepare to shed them now. — Shakespeare. 

2. Have then thy wish : he whistled shrill, 
And he was answered from the hill. — Scott. 

3. Yes: he had lived to shame me from my sneer. — Taylor. 

4. The sun had scarcely risen, when the messenger arrived. 

5. Greatly begin ! though thou have time 
But for a line, be that sublime. — Lowell. 

6. The things which I have seen I now can see no more. 

7. The fondness for rural life among the higher classes 
of the English, has had a great and salutary effect upon the 
national character. — Irving. 



104 LESSONS IN ENGLISH. 

8. Of all the poets who have introduced into their works 
the agency of supernatural beings, Milton has succeeded 
best. — Macaulay. 

II. — The Verb Do. 

The present and past tenses of the verb do are used as 
auxiliaries with the simple infinitive — 

i. To express emphasis; as, How he did shake! 

2. To express negation ; a£, I did not see it. 

3. To ask a question ; as, Did you hear the motion ? 
When do is used with the meaning to perform, it is an 

independent verb ; as, He did the work quickly. 

EXERCISE III. 

Tell whether the verb do is used as an independent or as 
an auxiliary verb in the following examples, and explain the 
use of the auxiliaries : — 

1. The evil that men do lives after them. — Shakespeare. 

2. You all did mark how he did shake. — Shakespeare. 

3. She gave me of the tree, and I did eat. —Bible. 

4. You all do know this mantle. — Shakespeare. 

5. I do not like your faults. — Shakespeare. 

6. Accuse not nature : she hath done her part : 
Do thou but thine. — Milton. 

7. Do not dissipate your energies on trifles. —Hamilton. 

8. Most of the facts of nature, especially in the life of 
birds and animals, are well screened. We do not see the 
play because we do not look intently enough. —John Burroughs. 

9. Did ye not hear it ? — Byron. 

10. A merry heart doeth good like a medicine. 



AUXILIARY VERBS. 



105 



LESSON XL. 

AUXILIARY VERBS.— Continued. 

III.— Shall. 



PRESENT TENSE. 

Singular. Plural, 

i. I shall, i. We shall, 

2. Thou shalt, 2. Ye or you 

shall, 

3. He shall. 3. They shall. 



past tense. 

Singular. Plural. 

1. I should, 1. We should, 

2. Thou shouldst, 2. Ye or you 

should, 

3. He should. 3. They should. 



IV. — Will. 



present tense. 

Singular. Plural. 



PAST TENSE. 

Singular. Plural. 

1. I will, 1. We will, 1. I would, 1. We would, 

2. Thou wilt, 2. Ye or you 2. Thou wouldst, 2. Ye or you 

will, would, 

3. He will. 3. They will. 3. He would. 3. They would. 



Shall and will are used with the infinitive of a verb, to form the 
future tense. Shall is an auxiliary of the future in the first person, 
and will in the second and third persons ; as, — 

I shall pass the house this afternoon. 

You will be too late. 

He will bring the papers. 

To make a promise or to express the determination of the speaker, 
will is used in the first person and shall in the second and third 
persons ; as, — 



106 LESSONS IN ENGLISH. 

I will do the errand. 
I will have my bond. 
You shall not escape. 
He shall receive the reward. 

Shall is used in asking questions in the first person ; as, — 

Shall I ring the bell ? (The action is dependent on the 
will of the person addressed.) 

Should and would, in corresponding cases, are used in the same 
manner as shall and will; thus, — 

I shall return the book, or I should return the book. 
You will find the tree, or you would find the tree. 

EXERCISE I. 

Explain each use of shall and of will in the following 
sentences : — 

1. To-day the vessel shall be launched. —Longfellow. 

2. Take care of your spirit and conduct, and your repu- 
tation will take care of itself. — Hamilton-. 

3. You will compel me then to read the will. — Shakespeare. 

4. Shall I descend ? And will you give me leave ? — 
Shakespeare. 

5. Hear me, for I will speak. — Shakespeare. 

6. Will you be patient ? Will you stay awhile ? — Shakespeare. 

7. If we fail, it can be no worse for us. But we shall 
not fail. The cause will raise up armies : the cause will 
create navies. — Webster. 

8. All that breathe will share thy destiny. —Bryant. 

9. Choose ye this day whom ye will serve. 



AUXILIARY VERBS. 107 



EXERCISE II. 

(i) Copy the following sentences, filling the blanks with a 
form of shall or will. (2) State a reason for the use of each 
word inserted: — 

1. We go if it does not rain. 

2. you have hot or cold tea ? 

3. The work probably be finished to-night. 

4. Whither thou goest, I go ; and where thou 

'odgest, I lodge. — Bible. 

5. I lift up mine eyes unto the hills. —Bible. 

6. I find you at home ? 

7. He said he not accept the explanation. 

8. I be pleased to hear from you. 



LESSON XLI. 

AUXILIARY VERBS. — Continued. 

V. — The Verb Be. 
The' verb be has the following forms : — 

INDICATIVE MODE. 

present tense. 

Singular. Plural. 

1. I am, 1. We are, 

2. Thou art, 2. You are, 

3. He is. 3. They are. 



108 LESSONS IN ENGLISH. 

PAST TENSE. 

Singular. Plural. 

i. I was, i. We were, 

2. Thou wast (wert), 2. You were, 

3. He was. 3. They were. 

SUBJUNCTIVE MODE. 
PRESENT TENSE. 

Singular. Plural. 

i. (If) I be, 1. (If) we be, 

2. (If) thou be, 2. (If) you be, 

3. (If) he be. 3. (If) they be. 

PAST TENSE. 

Singular. Plural. 

1. (If) I were, 1. (If) we were, 

2. (If) thou wert, 2. (If) you were, 

3. (If) he were. 3. (If) they were. 

IMPERATIVE MODE. 

Singular. Plural. 

Be (thou). Be (ye or you). 

INFINITIVES. PARTICIPLES. 

(To) be. Present. Being. 

Being. Perfect. Been. 



The different forms of the verb be are used as auxiliary — 

1. With the perfect participle of a transitive verb to make the 
passive voice; as, — 



AUXILIARY VERBS. 109 

I am seen, I have been seen, 

I was seen, I had been seen, 

I shall be seen. I shall have been seen. 

2. With the present participle of a verb, to make the progres- 
sive form. The progressive form represents an action as con- 
tinuing or progressing; as,— 

I am reading, I have been reading, 

I was reading, I had been reading, 

I shall be reading. I shall have been reading. 

When not thus used with the participle of another verb, be is an 
independent verb. It may then — 

i. Express existence ; as, God is. 

2. Be used as a copula, connecting its subject to a word or 
words describing the subject; as, Life is real. 



EXERCISE I. 

Explain the nse of the verb be in each of the follozving 
examples : — 

i. Life is real ! Life is earnest ! — Longfellow. 

2. I have been a stranger in a strange land. 

3. The harp, his sole remaining joy, 
Was carried by an orphan boy. — Scott. 

4. The Mayor was dumb, and the council stood 
As if they were changed into blocks of wood. 



110 LESSONS IN ENGLISH. 

5. If money had been needed before, it was still more 
needed now. 

6. This was accomplished in less than an hour's time. 

7. The shades of night were falling fast. — Longfellow. 

8. Old Kaspar's work was done, 
And he before his cottage door 

Was sitting in the sun. — Southey. 

9. While we were talking, a third messenger arrived. 

10. Somewhere the birds are singing evermore. 

11. O sweet and strange it seems to me, that ere this day 

is done, 
The voice, that now is speaking, may be beyond the 
sun. — Tennyson. 

12. The city was destroyed by an earthquake. 

13. The great iron gateway that opened into the court- 
yard was locked. — Irving. 

14. Whatever is, is right. — Pope. 

15. The old stage-coach is at the door. 

16. I stood on the bridge at midnight, 

As the clocks were striking the hour. 



EXERCISE II. 

Copy from the sentences in this lesson (1) all verbs that 
have the passive form, and (2) all verbs that have the pro- 
gressive form, and explain the formation and the use of each. 



AUXILIARY VERBS. Ill 

EXERCISE III. 

1. Write five sentences, each containing the verb be used as 
an independent verb. 

2. Write five sentences, each containing a verb in the passive 
voice. 

3. Write five sentences, each containing a verb in the pro- 
gressive form. 



LESSON XLII. 

AUXILIARY VERBS. — Continued. 

The following verbs are used with the simple infinitive to express 
power, permission, possibility, necessity, etc. They are sometimes 
called auxiliaries of mode : — 

I. — Can. 

present tense. past tense. 

Singular. Plural. Singular. Plural. 

1. I can, 1. We can, 1. I could, 1. We could, 

2. Thou canst, 2. Ye or you 2. Thou couldst, 2. Ye or you 

can, could, 

3. He can. 3. They can. 3. He could. 3. They could. 

Qan is used to express power or ability ; as : — 

She can walk. 

He could speak readily in three or four languages. 



112 LESSONS IN ENGLISH. 

II. — May. 
present tense. past tense. 

Singular. Plural. Singular. Plural. 

1. I may, I. We may, I. I might, I. We might, 

2. Thou mayest, 2. Ye or you 2. Thou might- 2. Ye or you 

may, est, might, 

3. He may. 3. They may. 3. He might. 3. They might. 

May expresses permission or possibility; as, — 

You may [are permitted to] enter the room. 

He may [it is possible that he will] change his mind. 

May is also used to express purpose, or to express a wish ; as, — 

Open the gate that they may enter. 
May you be happy. 

Could and might are sometimes used as the simple past of can 
and may, and sometimes in a conditional sense ; as, — 

I could hear the music. 

The lights of the village might be seen from the bay. 

He might go if he could spare the time. 

III.— Must. 

Must has no change of form. It expresses necessity; as, — 
He must have rest. 

IV.— Should and Would. 

Should is no longer used as a simple past, but has the sense of 
an indefinite present or of a contingent condition ; as, — 



AUXILIARY VERBS. 113 

Ambition should be made of sterner stuff. 

If I should begin the work, I could not finish it. 

Would is sometimes a simple past, sometimes a contingent 
present; as, — 

He would not speak when he had the opportunity. 
He would not speak if he had the opportunity. 

The phrases made up of the verbs may, can, must, might, could, would, or 
should, with an infinitive, are classed together by some grammarians, and called 
the potential mode; thus, — 

Present Tense. I may, can, or must go. 

Present Perfect Tense. I may have, can have, or must have gone. 
Past Tense. I might, could, would, or should go. 

Past Perfect Tense. I might have, could have, would have, or should 
have gone. 



V. — Ought. 

Ought is the old past tense of the verb owe, and expresses duty 
or obligation. It is used with the present infinitive to indicate present 
time, and with the perfect infinitive to indicate past time ; as, — 

Present. He ought to go. 

Past. He ought to have gone. 

EXERCISE I. 

Tell how the verbs may, can, must, should and would are 
used in the following sentences : — 

I. Lives of great men all remind us 

We can make our lives sublime. — Longfellow. 



114 LESSONS IN ENGLISH. 

2. For men may come and men may go, 

But I go on forever. —Tennyson. 

3. He that fights and runs away, 
May live to fight another day. 

4. It may be the gulfs will wash us down : 

It may be we shall touch the Happy Isles. 

5. Wealth may seek us, but wisdom must be sought. 

6. It is not what a lawyer tells me I may do, but what 
humanity, reason, and justice tell me I ought to do. —Burke. 

7. They had been friends in youth, 

But whispering tongues can poison truth. 

8. Too late! too late! ye cannot enter now. — Tennyson. 

9. How he could trot ! how he could run ! and then such 
leaps as he could take — there was not a hedge in the whole 
country that he could not clear. — Irving. 

10. She must weep or she will die. — Tennyson. 

11. He saw that it would be dark long before he could 
reach the village. — Irving. 

12. If a storm should come and awake the deep, 
What matter ! I shall ride and sleep. — Procter. 



EXERCISE II. 

Write sentences containing tJic verbs may, can, must* 
might, could, should, and would. 



CONJUGATION OF THE VERB DRIVE. 115 

LESSON XLIII. 

CONJUGATION OF THE VERB DRIVE. 
To conjugate a verb is to give its different forms ; thus, — - 
I. — Active Forms. 

INDICATIVE MODE. 
PRESENT TENSE. 

Singular. Plural. 

i. I drive, i. We drive, 

2. Thou drivest, 2. You drive, 

3. He drives. 3. They drive. 

PRESENT PERFECT TENSE. 

Singular. Plural. 

1. I have driven, 1. We have driven, 

2. Thou hast driven, 2. You have driven, 

3. He has driven. 3. They have driven. 

PAST TENSE. 

Singular. Plural. 

1. I drove, 1. We drove, 

2. Thou drovest, 2. You drove, 

3. He drove. 3. They drove. 

PAST PERFECT TENSE. 

Singular. Plural. 

1. I had driven, 1. We had driven, 

2. Thou hadst driven, 2. You had driven, 

3. He had driven. 3. They had driven. 



116 



LESSONS IN ENGLISH. 



FUTURE TENSE. 



Singular. 
I. I shall drive, 
2 Thou wilt drive, 
3. He will drive. 



Plural. 

1. We shall drive, 

2. You will drive, 

3. They will drive. 



FUTURE PERFECT TENSE. 

Singular. Plural. 

i. I shall have driven, 1. We shall have driven, 

2. Thou wilt have driven, 2. You will have driven, 

3. He will have driven. 3. They will have driven. 



SUBJUNCTIVE MODE. 



PRESENT TENSE. 



Singular. 

1. (If) I drive, 

2. (If) thou drive, 

3. (If) he drive. 



Plural. 
i. (If) we drive, 

2. (If) you drive, 

3. (If) they drive. 



PAST TENSE. 



Singular. 

1. (If) I drove, 

2. (If) thou drove, 

3. (If) he drove. 



Plural. 

1. (If) we drove, 

2. (If) you drove, 

3. (If) they drove. 



IMPERATIVE MODE. 
PRESENT TENSE. 



Singular. 
Drive (thou). 



Plural. 
Drive (ye or you). 



CONJUGATION OF THE VERB DRIVE. 



in 





INFINITIVES. 




Present. 




Perfect. 


(To) drive, 




(To) have driven, 


Driving. 


PARTICIPLES. 


Having driven. 


Present. 




Present Perfect. 


Driving. 




Having driven. 



II. — Passive Forms. 

The passive forms of a transitive verb are made by joining its 
perfect participle to the different forms of the verb be ; thus, — 



Present Tense. 

I am driven. 

Past Tense. 

I was driven. 

Future Tense. 

I shall be driven. 



INDICATIVE MODE. 

Present Perfect Tense. 

I have been driven. 

Past Perfect Tense. 

I had been driven. 



Future Perfect Tense. 

I shall have been driven. 



SUBJUNCTIVE MODE. 



Present Tense. 

(If) I be driven. 



Past Tense. 



(If) I were driven. 



IMPERATIVE MODE. 
Present Tense. 

Be (thou) driven. 



INFINITIVES. 
Present. Perfect. 

(To) be driven, (To) have been driven, 

Being driven. Having been driven. 



118 



LESSONS IN ENGLISH. 



Present. 

Being driven. 



PARTICIPLES. 

Perfect. Present Perfect. 

Driven. Having been driven. 



III. — Progressive Forms. 



The progressive forms of a verb are made by joining its present 
participle to the different forms of the verb be ; thus, — 



Present Tense. 

I am driving. 

Past Tense. 

I was driving. 

Future Tense. 

I shall be driving. 



INDICATIVE MODE. 

Present Perfect Tense. 

I have been driving. 

Past Perfect Tense. 

I had been driving. 

Future Perfect Tense. 

I shall have been driving. 



SUBJUNCTIVE MODE. 



Present Tense. 

(If) I be driving. 



Past Tense. 

(If) I were driving. 



IMPERATIVE MODE. 
Present Tense. 

Be (thou) driving. 

INFINITIVES. 
Present. Perfect. 

To (be) driving. (To) have been driving. 

Having been driving. 



Present. 

Driving. 



PARTICIPLES. 

Present Perfect. 

Having been driving. 



MODELS FOR PARSING VERBS. 119 

EXERCISE I. 

Write the active forms of the verb see that are used with 
the subject I in the different modes and tenses. 

EXERCISE II. 

Write the passive forms of the verb see that are used with 
the subject thou in the different modes and tenses. 

EXERCISE III. 

Write the progressive forms of the verb write that are 
used with the subject Tie in the different modes and tenses. 



LESSON XLIV. 

MODELS FOR PARSING VERBS, INFINITIVES, AND 
PARTICIPLES. 

To parse a verb tell — 

i. Its conjugation — regular or irregular. 



Its principal parts. 

Its class — transitive or intransitive. 

Its voice — active or passive (if transitive). 

Its mode. 

Its tense. 

Its person and number — when it has special forms. 

Its subject. 



120 LESSONS IN ENGLISH. 

Example I. — A flat stone marks the spot where the bard 
is buried. 

Marks is a regular verb — mark, marked, marked. It is transi- 
tive, active voice, indicative mode, present tense, third person, 
singular number, agreeing with its subject stone. 

Is buried is the passive form of the regular verb bury — bury, 
buried, buried. It is transitive, passive voice, indicative mode, 
present tense, third person, singular number, agreeing with its sub- 
ject bard. 

Example II. — The dew was falling fast. 

Was falling is the progressive form of the irregular verb fall — 
fall, fell, fallen. It is intransitive, indicative mode, past tense, third 
person, singular number, agreeing with its subject dew. 

Example in.— I may do that I shall be sorry for. 

May is a defective verb, transitive, indicative mode, present tense, 
used with the subject I* 

Do is the present infinitive of the irregular verb do — do, did, 
done. It is transitive, active voice, object of the verb may. 

Shall be, made up of the auxiliary shall and the infinitive of 
the verb be, is the future tense of the verb be. It is irregular, — 
be, was, been, — intransitive, indicative mode, used with the sub- 
ject 7. 

Example iv. — Be silent, that you may hear. 

Be is an irregular verb — be, was, been, — intransitive, imperative 
mode, present tense, used with the subject you understood. 

* Grammarians who recognize a potential mode would parse the phrase may do, 
in this example, as the potential, present, of the verb do. 



MODELS FOR PARSING VERBS. 121 

Example v.— How he could run ! 

Could is a defective verb, transitive, indicative mode, past tense, 
used with the subject he. 

Run is the present infinitive of the irregular verb run — run, ran, 
run. It is intransitive, object of the verb could. 

Example VI. — If I should go, I could do your errand. 

Could is a defective verb, transitive, subjunctive mode, past tense\ 
used with the subject I. 

Do is the present infinitive of the irregular verb do — do, did, 
done. It is transitive, active voice, object of the verb could. 

Example VII — The greatest curiosity of the study remains 
to be mentioned ; it was a ponderous folio volume, bound in 
black leather. 

To be mentioned is the present infinitive, passive, of the transitive 
verb mention. It depends on the verb remains. 

Bound is the perfect participle, passive, of the irregular, transitive 
verb bind. It modifies the noun volume. 



EXERCISE I. 

Parse the verbs in the follozving sentences : — 

i. Have patience with me, and I will pay thee all. 

2. Now stir the fire, and close the shutters fast. — Cowper. 

3. The ship is sinking beneath the tide. — Southey. 

4. I have been young, and now am old, yet have I not 
seen the righteous forsaken. — Bible. 

5. There is a tide in the affairs of men, 

Which, taken at ' the flood, leads on to fortune ; - ■ 

I* 



122 LESSONS IN ENGLISH. 

Omitted, all the voyage of their life 
Is bound in shallows and in miseries. 

6. The broad sun above laughed a pitiless laugh. 

7. The Americans were sheltered by an intervening wood. 

8. Some murmur when their sky is clear 

And wholly bright to view, 
If one small speck of dark appear 

In their great heaven of blue. — Trench. 

9. I dreamed to-night that I did feast with Caesar. 

10. We had had no water since our daylight breakfast; 
our lunch on the mountain had been moistened only by the 
fog. — C. D. Warner. 

EXERCISE II. 

Parse the verbs, the infinitives, and the participles in the 

following sentences : — 

1. I rose softly, opened the door suddenly, and beheld 
one of the most beautiful little fairy groups that a painter 
could imagine. — Irving. 

2. Let us enter and pass up the staircase. — Hawthorne. 

3. In this way they expected to ruin all the merchants, 
and starve the poor people, by depriving them of employ- 
ment. — Hawthorne. 

4. Let me move slowly through the street. — Bryant. 

5. The country was to be defended, and to be saved, 
before it could be enjoyed. — Webster. 

6. We cannot look, however imperfectly, upon a great 
man without gaining something by him. — Carlyle. 



MODELS FOR PARSING VERBS. 123 

7. In an attitude imploring, 

Hands upon his bosom crossed, 
Wondering, worshipping, adoring, 

Knelt the Monk in rapture lost. — Longfellow. 

8. The rattle of drums, beaten out of all manner of time, 
was heard above every other sound. — Hawthorne. - 

9. Whatever may be our fate, be assured that this decla- 
ration will stand. It may cost treasure, and it may cost blood ; 
but it will stand, and it will richly compensate for both. 

10. You may break, you may shatter the vase, if you will, 
But the scent of the roses will hang round it still. 

11. For men must work, and women must weep, 
Though storms be sudden, and waters deep. 

12. The burden laid upon me 
Seemed greater than I could bear. 

13. Modern majesty consists in work. What a man can 
do is his greatest ornament, and he always consults his 
dignity by doing it. — Carlyle. 

14. The pine, placed nearly always among scenes dis- 
ordered and desolate, brings into them all possible elements 
of order and precision. Lowland trees may lean to this side 
and that, though it is but a meadow breeze that bends them, 
or a bank of cowslips from which their trunks lean aslope. 
But let storm and avalanche do their worst, and let the 
pine find only a ledge of vertical precipice to cling to, it 
will nevertheless grow straight. — Ruskin. 



124 LESSONS IN ENGLISH. 



LESSON XLV. 

REVIEW OF VERBS. 

Define a verb. What is a transitive verb? What is an intransitive 
verb ? Mention a word that may be a transitive verb in one sentence, 
and an intransitive verb in another. 

What inflections have verbs? What is meant by voice? How 
many voices are there? What does each denote? How is the 
passive voice formed? 

What is meant by mode? How many modes are there? Define, 
and give examples of each. 

What is tense?. Name the three leading tenses. Which tenses 
are indicated by inflection and which by the aid of other verbs? 

What person-forms has the verb? What number-forms? 

How do the infinitive and the participle differ from the verb? 
How do they differ from each other? Which part of speech is the 
infinitive most like? The participle? Mention four different verbal 
forms ending in ing, and state the characteristics of each. 

What are the principal parts of a verb? What is a regular verb? 
An irregular verb? When is an irregular verb said to be strong? 
When weak? Are regular verbs strong or weak? Which conjugation 
contains the oldest verbs in the language? 

What is meant by conjugating a verb? 

When is a verb said to be used as an auxiliary? Mention three 
verbs that may be used as either independent or auxiliary verbs, 
and give examples of each use. What auxiliary is used in forming 
the passive voice? Which of the auxiliaries are tense auxiliaries? 
How are they used? 



CLASSES OF ADVERBS. 125 

LESSON XLVI. 

CLASSES OF ADVERBS. 

Point out the adverbs in the following sentences, and tell what 
each expresses : — 

i. Now came still evening on. 

2. Ah ! then and there was hurrying to and fro. 

3. Days brightly came and calmly went 

4. It is a very difficult task. 

1. Adverbs may be classified according to their meaning. Thus — 

i. Adverbs that show when or how often are called adverbs of 
time ; as, now, then, to-day, yesterday, early, presently, soon, always, 
ofte?i, once, twice, daily, again. 

2. Adverbs that show where are called adverbs of place ; as, 
here, there, hither, thither, hence, thence, somewhere, yonder, above, 
belotv, up, down, away, off, far. 

The word there is not always an adverb of place. Sometimes it 
is used merely to introduce a sentence, in order that the verb may 
be placed before its subject. When it is used to introduce a sentence 
in this manner, it is called an expletive ; as, — 

There [expletive] was a sound of revelry by night. 
There [adverb of place] groups of merry children played. 

3. Adverbs that show how are called adverbs of manner ; as, 
well, ill, badly, slowly, quickly, clearly, together, so, thus. 

4. Adverbs that show how much are called adverbs of degree ; 
as, very, much, little, only, almost, enough, quite, too, so, as. 

5. Adverbs that express certainty or uncertainty are called 
modal adverbs ; as, indeed, verily, possibly, perhaps. 



126 LESSONS IN ENGLISH. 

The words yes and no are sometimes called adverbs, but they are 
really abridged sentences; as, Will you go? Yes (= I will go). 

Combinations of words used as single adverbs may be called 
adverbial phrases ; as, again and again, at last, at length, by 
and by, by far, in and out, in vain, now and then, out and out, 
through and through, up and down. 

Tell how each adverb is used in the following sentences : — 

1. The guests withdrew silently. 

2. The tree lies where it fell. 

3. Where can rest be found? 

II. Adverbs may be classified, according to use, as follows: — 
i. An adverb that simply modifies another word is called a 
simple adverb ; as, He walked rapidly. 

2. An adverb that not only modifies a word, but also connects 
the clause of which it is a part with the remainder of the sentence, 
is called a conjunctive adverb; as, He came when he was called. 

The most common words of this class are when, where, whence, 
whither, how, and why. These are also called adverbial con- 
junctions. 

3. An adverb that is used to ask a question is called an inter- 
rogative adverb; as, Where did he stand? 

Some adverbs admit of comparison. They are compared like adjec- 
tives ; as, soon, sootier, soonest; wisely, more wisely, most wisely; much, 
more, most. 

Order of Parsing Adverbs. 
To parse an adverb, tell — 

1. The kind of adverb. 

2. Its degree, if comparative or superlative. 

3. Its construction — what it modifies. 



CLASSES OF ADVERBS. 127 

Example I.— He then touched briefly upon the prominent 
events of the Revolution. 

i. Then is an adverb of time, modifying the verb touched. 

2. Briefly is an adverb of manner, modifying the verb touched. 

Example II.— I remember, I remember 

The house where I was born. 

Where is a conjunctive adverb, showing place. It modifies the 
verb was born, and connects the clause " where I was born " with 
the word house. 

Example ill — When did he go? 

When is an interrogative adverb of time, modifying the verb 
did go. 

EXERCISE I. 

Parse the verbs and the adverbs in the following sen- 
tences : — 

i. A thousand hearts beat happily. — Byron. 

2. Down sunk the bell with a gurgling sound. — Southey. 

3. Then did the little maid reply, 

"Seven boys and girls are we." — Wordsworth. 

4. Defect in manners is usually the defect of fine percep- 
tions. — Emerson. 

5. On right, on left, above, below, 

Sprung up at once the lurking foe. —Scott. 

6. Swiftly, swiftly flew the ship, 

Yet she sailed softly too. —Coleridge. 

7. The world is too much with us. — Wordsworth. 



128 LESSONS IN ENGLISH. 

8. How often, oh, how often 

I had wished that the ebbing tide 
Would bear me away on its bosom 

O'er the ocean wild and wide. — Longfellow. 

EXERCISE II. 

Parse the adverbs in the following sentences : — 

i. There in the twilight cold and gray, 

Lifeless, but beautiful, he lay. — Longfellow. 

2. And there lay the steed with his nostril all wide, 

But through it there rolled not the breath of his pride. 

3. There is nothing like a primeval wood for color on a 
sunny day. — C. D. Warner. 

4. Why stand ye here all the day idle? — Bible. 

5. Oh ! what a tangled web we weave, 
When first we practise to deceive. — Scott. 

6. O Solitude ! where are the charms 

That sages have seen in thy f ace ? — Cowper. 

7. O, why should the spirit of mortal be proud?— Knox. 

8. The rain is falling where they lie. — Bryant. 

Adjective or Adverb. 

Tell whether the italicized words in the following sentences are 
adjectives or adverbs, giving a reason in each case: — 

i. She looks cold. 

2. She looked coldly on the project. 



CLASSES OF ADVERBS. 129 

3. The apple feels hard. 

4. He works hard. 

An adjective is used when the quality or condition of the sub- 
ject is given, and an adverb, when the manner of the action is 
described; as, — 

The child seems happy. 
He lived happily. 

Some adverbs are identical in form with adjectives; as, much, 
little, far, ill, hard, loud, soft, fast. 



EXERCISE III. 

Parse the adverbs and the adjectives in the following 
sentences : — 

i. He lives long that lives well. 

2. Still waters run deep. 

3. Welcome her, all things youthful and sweet ! 

4. Then they praised him soft and low. 

5. He drank of the water so cool and clear. — Southey. 

6. How fast the flitting figures come !— Bryant. 

7. The shades of night were falling fast. — Longfellow. 

8. The door in the mountain-side shut fast. 

9. A wondrous portal opened wide. — Browning. 

10. The tumult grew louder. — Hawthorne. 

11. Louder still the minstrels blew. 

12. Colder and louder blew the wind, 

A gale from the Northeast. — Longfellow. 



130 LESSONS IN ENGLISH. 



EXERCISE IV. 

What is an adverb? How are adverbs classified with respect to 
meaning? Give an example of each class. How are they classified 
with respect to use? State the two offices of a conjunctive adverb. 
Give an example of an interrogative adverb. Mention five adverbs 
that admit of comparison, and give the comparison of each. In 
what way are adjectives and adverbs alike? How do they differ? 



LESSON XLVII. 

PREPOSITIONS. 

Tell what the following prepositions connect, and what relations 
they express : — 

i. He stood on the bridge. 

2. 'Twas the night before Christmas. 

3. The tree was struck by lightning. 

4. He died for his country. 

5. The eyes of the sleepers waxed deadly and chill 

Prepositions express such a variety of relations that they cannot 
be easily classified according to meaning. The most common rela- 
tions expressed by prepositions are — 

i. Place or direction; as, At home; towards the bridge; 
below the falls. 

2. Time ; as, After breakfast ; till noon ; since morning. 

3. Agency, instrumentality, or means ; as, Killed by frost ; 
cut with a hatchet ; lost through carelessness. 



PREPOSITIONS. 131 

4. Cause, or purpose ; as, Thankful for good health ; He votes 
from principle. 

5. Possession; as, The voice of the speaker; the beauty of the 
rose ; the blade of the knife. 

6. Definition ; as, The virtue of temperance ; the city of Rome. 

7. Object; as, The fear of death; the hope of reward. 

Many other relations are implied, such as reference, expressed by 
about; association, by with; separation, by from; opposition, by 
against ; substitution, by for ; etc. 

Certain phrases are used with the force of single prepositions. 
They are called compound prepositions ; as, according to, in place 
of, in regard to, instead of, out of, on account of. 

Order of Parsing Prepositions. 
To parse a preposition, — 

1. Name the part of speech. 

2. Tell with what word it connects its object. 

3. State the relation shown. 

Example.— He goes on Sunday to the church. —Longfellow. 

1. On is a preposition, connecting the noun Sunday with the verb 
goes, and showing the relation of time. 

2. To is a preposition, connecting the noun church with the verb 
goes, and showing the relation of place. 

EXERCISE I. 

Parse the prepositions in the following sentences : — 

1. At midnight, however, I was aroused by the tramp of 
horses' hoofs in the yard. 



132 LESSONS IN ENGLISH. 

2. Great turtles came up out of the water, and crawled 
along on a sandy place. — M. Thompson. 

3. The scheme failed for want of support. 

4. The Love that leads the willing spheres 
Along the unending track of years 
And watches o'er the sparrow's nest, 
Shall brood above thy winter rest. — Bryant. 

5. By fairy hands their knell is rung ; 

By forms unseen their dirge is sung. — Collins. 

6. With my cross-bow 

I shot the Albatross. —Coleridge. 

7. The little bird sits at his door in the sun. —Lowell. 



EXERCISE II. 

Parse the prepositions and the adverbs in the following . 

On the cross-beam under the Old South bell 

The nest of a pigeon is builded well. 

In summer and winter that bird is there, 

Out and in with the morning air ; 

I love to see him track the street, 

With his wary eye and active feet ; 

And I often watch him as he springs, 

Circling the steeple with easy wings, 

Till across the dial his shade has passed, 

And the belfry edge is gained at last. — N. P. Willis. 



CLASSES OF CONJUNCTIONS. 133 

LESSON XLVIII. 

CLASSES OF CONJUNCTIONS. 
I. — CO-ORDINATING CONJUNCTIONS. 

Find in the following examples conjunctions that connect sentences, 
or words, phrases, and clauses of like kind, or having the same rela- 
tion to the rest of the sentence : — 

i . Art is long, and time is fleeting. 

2. Games and carols closed the day. 

3. The house was silent and deserted. 

4. You see where Warren fell, and where other 
patriots fell with him. 

Words, phrases, and clauses of like kind, or standing in the same 
relation to the rest of the sentence, are said to have the same con- 
struction or to be of equal rank. Conjunctions that connect sentences, 
or parts of sentences of equal rank, are called co-ordinating con- 
junctions. They may connect — 

i. Two independent sentences ; as, Be diligent, and you will succeed. 

2. Two words in the same construction; as, The minstrel was infirm 
and old. 

3. Two phrases in the same construction ; as, They are alike in 
voice and in manner. 

4. Two dependent clauses in the same construction ; as, No one 
could tell whence they came or whither they went. 

Co-ordinating conjunctions are divided into the following classes: — 

1. Copulative, those that join similar parts; as, and, also, besides, 
likewise, moreover. 

2. Adversative, those that join parts opposed in meaning; as, 
but, yet, however, still, nevertheless, notwithstanding. 



134 LESSONS IN ENGLISH. 

3. Alternative, those that imply a choice between two ; as, either 
— or, neither — nor, whether — or. 

4. Causal, those that express cause or consequence ; as, for, 
therefore, hence, consequently. 

Conjunctions used in pairs are called correlatives ; as, both — 
arid, either — or, neither — nor, not — but, not only — but. 

II. — SUBORDINATING CONJUNCTIONS. 

Mention the dependent clause in each of the following sentences, 
state its use, and tell how it is joined to the principal clause. 

1. I would grant your request if I could. 

2. He came, because he was needed. 

3. Be silent, that you may hear. 

Conjunctions that connect a dependent or subordinate clause to a 
principal clause are called subordinating conjunctions. They 
denote — 

1. Time ; as, after, before, ere, since, till, when, while, as. 

2. Place ; as, where, whence. 

3. Manner and comparison ; as, than, as. 

4. Cause or reason ; as, because, since, as, that, whereas. 

5. End or purpose; as, that, lest. 

6. Condition ; as, if, unless, except. 

7. Concession ; as, though, although. 

Certain phrases performing the office of conjunctions may be called 
compound conjunctions; as, but also, as well as, as if, as though. 

Order of Parsing Conjunctions. 
To parse a conjunction, tell — 

1. Its class — co-ordinating or subordinating. 

2. Its use - state what it connects. 



CLASSES OF CONJUNCTIONS. 135 

Example I.— Hear me for my cause, and be silent, that you 
may hear. 

i. And is a co-ordinating conjunction, connecting the two inde- 
pendent members, " Hear me for my cause," and " be silent, that you 
may hear." 

2. That is a subordinating conjunction, connecting the subordinate 
clause, "you may hear," to the principal clause, "be silent." 

Example II.— Is the night chilly and dark? 
i. And is a co-ordinating conjunction, connecting the two adjectives 
chilly and dark. 

EXERCISE I. 

Parse the conjunctions in the following sentences, and state the 
relation between the connected terms : — 

1. My hair is gray, but not with years, 

Nor grew it white 
In a single night, 
As men's have grown from sudden fears: 
My limbs are bowed, though not with toil, 

But rusted with a vile repose, 
For they have been a dungeon's spoil, 

And mine has been the fate of those 
To whom the goodly earth and air 
Are banned, and barred, — forbidden fare. — Byron. 

2. Here rests his head upon the lap of earth, 

A youth to fortune and to fame unknown. —Gray. 

3. They deserved respect ; for they were good men as 
well as brave. — Hawthorne. 



136 LESSONS IN ENGLISH. 

4. On either side the river lie 

Long fields of barley and of rye. —Tennyson. 

5. Neither a borrower nor a lender be. — Shakespeare. 

6. As Caesar loved me, I weep for him ; as he was fortu- 
nate, I rejoice at it ; as he was valiant, I honor him : but, 
as he was ambitious, I slew him. — Shakespeare. 

7. The test of a people is not in its occupations, but in 
its heroes. — T. w. Higginson. 

8. Then they praised him, soft and low, 

Called him worthy to be loved, 
Truest friend and noblest foe ; 

Yet she neither spoke nor moved. —Tennyson. 

9. One whole month elapsed before I knew the fate of 
the cargo. 

10. The works of Milton cannot be comprehended or 
enjoyed, unless the mind of the reader co-operate with that 
of the writer. He does not paint a finished picture, or play 
for a mere passive listener. He sketches, and leaves others 
to fill up the outline. He strikes the key-note, and expects 
his hearer to make out the melody. — Macaulay. 

EXERCISE II. 

Name the two leading classes of conjunctions. What is a co- 
ordinating conjunction? What is meant by words, phrases, or clauses 
of equal rank? Illustrate. Tell how co-ordinating conjunctions are 
classified, and give examples of each class. 

What is a subordinating conjunction ? Mention some of the different 
relations denoted by subordinating conjunctions, and give illustrations. 

What are correlative conjunctions? Give examples. 

Mention phrases that are used as conjunctions. 



INTERJECTIONS. 137 



LESSON XLIX. 

INTERJECTIONS. 

Since interjections are not grammatically related to the other 
words in a sentence, the parsing of an interjection consists in 
simply naming the part of speech. 

EXERCISE. 

Mention the interjections in the following sentences, and tell 
what feeling each expresses : — 

1. Ah! what would the world be to us 

If the children were no more ? — Longfellow. 

2. Hark! let me listen for the swell of the surf. 

3. Ah! what a weary race my feet have run. — Warton. 

4. Oh ! wherefore come ye forth, in triumph from the 
North ? — Macaulay. 

5. Alas! I have nor hope nor health. — Shelley. 

6. And, lo ! from far, as on they pressed, there came a 
glittering band. — Hemans. 

7. Hark ! hark ! the lark at heaven's gate sings. 

8. Ha ! laugh'st thou, Lochiel, my vision to scorn ? 

9. For, lo ! the blazing, rocking roof 

Down, down in thunder falls ! — Horace Smith. 

10. Heigh ho! daisies and buttercups, 
Fair yellow daffodils, stately and tall. 

11. O joy! that in our embers 

Is something that doth live. — Wordsworth. 



138 LESSONS IN ENGLISH. 



SUMMARY. 
INFLECTION. 

Inflection is the alteration in the form of a word, to 
express a change of meaning or of relation. 

The parts of speech that are inflected are the noun, 
the pronoun, the adjective, the verb, and the adverb. 

Nouns and pronouns are inflected for gender, number, 
and case. The inflection of a noun or a pronoun is called 
its declension. 

Verbs are inflected for voice, mode, tense, person, and 
number. The inflection of a verb is called its conjuya- 
tion. 

Some adjectives and a few adverbs are inflected for 
degree. This inflection is called comparison. 

Prepositions, conjunctions, and interjections are not 
inflected. 



Part Third. 
relations of words— syntax. 

Syntax treats of the grammatical relations of words in sentences. 
The relation that any part of speech bears to other parts of speech 
in the same sentence is called its construction. 



LESSON L. 

CONSTRUCTIONS OF THE NOUN. 

The most common constructions of the noun have already been 
given. The noun may be used — 

i. As the subject of a verb; as, — 
The sun shines. 

The subject of a verb is in the nominative case. This is 
called the subject nominative. 

2. As a predicate nominative. A noun that completes the 
meaning of an intransitive verb, and refers to the same person or 
thing as the subject of the verb, is said to be in the nominative 
case after the verb. It completes the predicate, and is called a 
predicate noun or a predicate nominative. The verbs be, 
become, appear, look, seem, etc., and the passive forms of a few 
transitive verbs are followed by a predicate nominative ; as, — 

Webster was a statesman. 
139 



p> 



140 LESSONS IN ENGLISH. 



Man became a living soul. 
He was elected senator. 

3. As an objective predicate; as, — 

They made him secretary. 

In this sentence him is the direct object of the verb, and secre- 
tary completes the meaning of the verb make and shows what they 
made him. A noun that completes the meaning of a transitive 
verb and describes its object is called an objective predicate. 
The verbs make, appoint, elect, call, choose, and others of similar 
meaning, are followed by the objective predicate. 

When these verbs are used in the passive voice, they are followed 
by the predicate nominative ; as, — 

He will be made secretary. 

4. In apposition. A noun added to a noun or a pronoun, to 
explain or describe its meaning, is called an appositive, or is said 
to be in apposition with the first noun or pronoun. Two words 
in apposition are in the same case ; as, — 

Motley, the historian, was an American. (Nominative case.) 
We met your brother, the general. (Objective case.) 

5. In the nominative absolute. A noun used absolutely with 
a participle, its case not depending upon any other word, is said to 
be in the nominative case absolute ; as, — 

The train being late, they returned to the hotel. 

6. In address. When a noun is used in addressing a person or 
a thing, it is said to be in the nominative case of address ; as, — 

Friends, are you convinced ? 

Ring, happy bells, across the snow. 



CONSTRUCTIONS OF THE NOUN. 141 

7. As a possessive modifying another noun; as, — 

We sat by the fisher's cottage. 

The noun denoting the thing possessed is sometimes omitted; 
as, He called at your mother's \house~\. 

8. As the object of a transitive verb (or of its participles 
or infinitives) ; as, — 

The boy waved a flag. 

The horse, hearing the cars, stopped. 

'Tis sweet to hear the merry lark. 

9. As the object of a preposition; as, — 

We spoke not a word of sorrow. 

10. As an indirect object to show to or for whom or what 
something is done ; as, — 

He gave the man a coat (He gave a coat to the man). 

In the first form, the noun coat is the direct object of the verb 
gave, and the noun man the indirect object. 

She bought the bird a cage (She bought a cage for the bird). 
In the first form, the noun cage is the direct object of the verb 
bought, and the noun bird is the indirect object. 

As these examples show, the indirect object alone is used when the noun stands 
next the verb, the preposition when the noun is separated from the verb. 

11. As an adverbial limitation to modify a verb, an adjective, 
or an adverb. When nouns expressing time, distance, weight, value, 
etc., are used like adverbs, they are called adverbial objects, or are 
said to be in the objective case, adverbially; as, — 

He held the office three years. 
The walk is three feet zvide. 
Do not remain a moment longer. 



142 LESSONS IN ENGLISH. 

EXERCISE I. 

Name the case, and give the construction of each noun in 
the following sentences : — 

1. Every man's task is his life-preserver. — Emerson. 

2. He took great pains to give us all the information we 
needed. — Holmes. 

3. Then give him, for a soldier meet, 

A soldier's cloak for winding-sheet. — Scott. 

4. I am monarch of all I survey. — Cowper. 

5. Our fortress is the good greenwood, 

Our tent the cypress-tree. — Bryant. 

6. They made me queen of the May.— Tennyson. 

7. The colonists were now no longer freemen ; they were 
entirely dependent on the king's pleasure. — Hawthorne. 

8. The harp, his sole remaining joy, 
Was carried by an orphan boy. — Scott. 

9. Brethren, the sower's task is done. — Bryant. 

10. Yet fair as thou art, thou shunnest to glide, 
Beautiful stream ! by the village side. — Bryant. 

11. The supper being over, the strangers requested to be 
shown to their place of repose. — Hawthorne. 

12. An ancient clock, that important article of cottage fur- 
niture, ticked on the opposite side of the room. — Irying. 

13. Good friends, sweet friends, let me not stir you up to 
such a sudden flood of mutiny. — Shakespeare. 



CONSTRUCTIONS OF THE PRONOUN. 143 

14. We have no bird whose song will match the nightin- 
gale's in compass, none whose note is so rich as that of the 
European blackbird ; but for mere rapture I have never heard 
the bobolink's rival. — Lowell. 

EXERCISE II. 

1. Write sentences illustrating five different constructions of 
a noun in the nominative case. 

2. Write sentences illustrating six different constructions of 
a noun in the objective case. 



LESSON LI. 

CONSTRUCTIONS OF THE PRONOUN. 

I. — Agreement with Antecedent. 

What determines the person, number, and gender of the itali- 
cized pronouns in the following sentences? — 

1. The host moved about among his guests. 

2. Here is the lady that rang the bell. 

3. Uneasy lies the head that wears a crown. 

A pronoun must agree in person, number, and gender 
with its antecedent. 

The antecedent of a relative pronoun is sometimes omitted ; as, 
[#<?] Who breaks, pays. 



144 LESSONS IN ENGLISH. 

The relative pronoun is sometimes omitted ; as, Observe the 
language well in all \_that] you write. 

It is sometimes used indefinitely without an antecedent, as the 
subject or as the object of a verb ; as, It rains. Come and trip 
it as you go. This is often called the impersonal use. 

It is often used as the subject of a verb which is followed by the 
real subject; as, // is impossible to hear. 



EXERCISE I. 

Give the antecedent, and the person, number, and gender of 
each pronoun in the following sentences : — 

i. The evil that men do lives after them. 

2. Not a boy in the class knew his lesson. 

3. And the women are weeping and wringing their hands 
For those who will never come home to the town. 

4. He that is giddy thinks that the world turns round. 

5. What is that sound which now bursts on his ear? 

6. After the dinner-table was removed, the hall was given 
up to the younger members of the family, who made its old 
walls ring with their merriment as they played at romping 
games. — Irving. 

7. I thrice presented him a kingly crown, 
Which he did thrice refuse. — Shakespeare. 

8. Thou art Freedom's now, and Fame's, 
One of the few, the immortal names, 
That were not born to die. — Halleck. 



CONSTRUCTIONS OF THE PRONOUN. 145 



II. — Case-Relations. 

The case-relations of the pronoun are the same as those of the 
noun. 

EXEKCISE I. 

Explain the use of each italicized case-form in the folloiving 
sentences : — ■ 

i. If / were he, I should not go. 

2. It must have been she whom you saw. 

3. To whom did he refer? 

4. Do you know who I am ? 

5. Who do you think will be chosen ? 

6. Whom did he call ? 

7. Whom do you wish to see ? 

8. Who is it that you wish to see ? 

9. Could it have been they that called ? 

10. I am he whom you seek. 

11. Is it / that you mean? 

12. Between you and me, I do not care how the matter ends. 

EXERCISE II. 

Mention the case, and state the construction of each italicized 
pronoun in the following sentences : — 

1. The great man is he who does not lose his child's heart. 

2. I know not what course others may take ; but, as for 
me, give me liberty or give me death ! — Patrick Henry. 

3. // is /; be not afraid. — Bible. 

4. What do we give to our beloved ? — E. B. Browning. 



146 



LESSONS IN ENGLISH. 



5. What in me is dark, 
Illumine ; what is low, raise and support. — Milton. 

6. Who, of all that address the public ear, whether in 
church, or court-house, or hall of state, has such an attentive 
audience as the town-crier ? — Hawthorne. 

7. We all do fade as a leaf. — Bible. 

8. He is the freeman whom the truth makes free. 

9. Breathes there the man with soul so dead 
Who never to himself hath said, 

This is my own, my native land ? — Scott. 
10. " Hadst thou stayed I must have fled ! " 

This is what the vision said. — Longfellow. 



LESSON LII. 



CONSTRUCTIONS OF THE ADJECTIVE. 

Which adjectives in the following sentences modify nouns directly, 
and which modify a noun or a pronoun through the verb? — 

1. A soft answer turneth away wrath. 

2. Ring out, wild bells. 

3. The sky is clear. 

4. He painted the house white. 

5. Her beauty made me glad. 

I. An adjective that modifies a noun or a pronoun directly is 
said to be used attributively ; as, — 

Drowsy tinklings lull the distant fold. 



CONSTRUCTIONS OF THE ADJECTIVE. 147 

II. An adjective loosely attached to its noun is said to be used 
appositively ; as, — 

No misfortune, public or private, could oppress him. 

III. An adjective that completes the predicate, and shows what is 
asserted of the subject of the verb, or describes the object of the 
verb, is called a predicate adjective, or is said to be used 
predicatively ; as, — 

Snow is white. 

They set the prisoner free. 

In poetry an adjective is sometimes used for an adverb; as, — 

Silent rows the gondolier. 

EXERCISE I. 

Tell how each adjective is used in the following sentences: — 
i. The lamps shone o'er fair women and brave men. 

2. Is it where the feathery palm-trees rise, 
And the date grows ripe under sunny skies ? 
Or 'midst the green islands of glittering seas, 
Where fragrant forests perfume the breeze ? 

3. The fields were green, and the sky was blue. — Southey. 

4. The sea is mighty, but a mightier sways 
His restless billows. — Bryant. 

5. He wrapped her warm in his seaman's coat. 

6. My keepers grew compassionate. — Byron. 

7. Besides, our losses have made us thrifty. — Browning. 



148 LESSONS IN ENGLISH. 

8. Heigh-ho ! daisies and buttercups, 

Fair yellow daffodils, stately and tall ! 
When the wind wakes, how they rock in the grasses, 
And dance with the cuckoo-buds, slender and small ! 



EXERCISE II. 

1. Write four sentences containing adjectives used attribu- 
tively. 

2. Write three sentences containing adjectives used predica- 
tive ly, with intransitive verbs. 

3. Write three sentences containing adjectives used predica- 
tively, zvith transitive verbs. 



LESSON LIII. 

THE VERB. 
AGREEMENT WITH SUBJECT. 

What determines the person and number forms of the italicized 
verbs in the following sentences? — 

1. The stream flows swiftly. 

2. Thou art the man. 

3. John and Henry are absent. 
4-. John or Henry is absent. 

5. The committee has been appointed. 



THE VERB. 149 



When the form of the subject determines the form of the verb, 
a verb is said to agree with its subject in person and number; as, — 

I see ; thou seest ; he sees. 

Two or more singular subjects connected by and 
require a plural verb ; as, — 

Time and tide wait for no man. 

If the subjects refer to the same person or thing, the verb must 
be singular ; as, The soldier and statesman has passed away. 

When the subjects are preceded by each, every, or no, they refer 
to things considered separately, and require a singular verb ; as, 
Each day and each hour brings its own duties. 

Two or more singular subjects connected by or or nor 
require a singular verb ; as, — 

He or she was in the wrong. 

A collective noun requires a verb in the singular when 
it denotes the collection as a whole, and a verb in the 
plural, when it denotes the individuals in the collection 
separately; as, — 

The congregation was dismissed. 

The whole congregation were in tears. 

EXERCISE I. 

State the person and the number of each italicized verb in 
the following sentence, and tell why these forms are used: — 

i. The difficulties were all over now, and everything was 
settled. 

2. A little fire is quickly trodden out. 



150 LESSONS IN ENGLISH. 

3. Delicacy and brilliancy characterize nearly all the Cali- 
fornia flowers. 

4. The derivation of these words is uncertain. 

5. It is an ill wind that blows nobody good. 

6. Neither the secretary nor the treasurer was present. 

7. The army is needed for the defence of the country. 

8. How does such a loose pile of sticks maintain its place 
during a heavy wind ? 

9. A hundred eager fancies and busy hopes keep him awake. 

10. The council were divided in their opinions. 

11. Slow and sure comes up the golden year. 

12. Either ability or inclination was wanting. 

13. Let us hold fast the great truth that the people art 
responsible. 

14. A word or an epithet paints a whole scene. 

15. The saint, the father, and the husband prays. — Burns. 

16. Seasons return, but not to me returns 

Day, or the sweet approach of even or morn. —Milton. 

EXERCISE II. 

1. Write three sentences in each of which the verb has two 
or more singular subjects connected by and. 

2. Write three sentences in each of which the verb lias two 
or more singular subjects connected by or or nor. 

3. Write two sentences in each of which the subject is a 
collective noun denoting the collection as a whole. 

4. Write two sentences in each of which the subject is a 
collective noun denoting the individuals in the collection sepa- 
rately. 



CONSTRUCTIONS OF INFINITIVES. 151 



LESSON LIV. 

CONSTRUCTIONS OF INFINITIVES. 

The chief constructions of the infinitives, including those already 
given, are the following : — 

1. The simple infinitive, without to, is used after the verbs 
may, can, must, dare, etc., as, — 

Men must work. 

II. Both the infinitive with to and the participial infinitive may 
be used, like a noun — 

i. As the subject of a verb; as, — 

To see is to believe. 
Seeing is believing. 

2. As a predicate nominative; as, — 

To hesitate is to fail. 
Begging is not serving. 

3. As the object of a verb; as, — 

We purpose to call a meeting. 
We purpose calling a meeting. 

4. As the object of a preposition. 

She was about to speak. 

On reaching the door, he paused. 

III. The infinitive with to is used — 

1. To modify a noun, an adjective, or an adverb; as, — 
There is a time to weep. 



152 LESSONS IN ENGLISH. 

She is eager to go. 

He is old enough to knoiv better. 

2. To express purpose, consequence, etc.; as, — 

He came to assist his comrades. 

3. Elliptically or absolutely; as, — 

He was petrified, so to speak. 

To tell the truth, I do not believe it. 

IV. The infinitive, usually with to, is used with a noun or a pro- 
noun as the object of a verb; as, — 

He maketh wars to cease. 
I asked him to sing. 
In this construction, the noun or pronoun which is used with the 
infinitive as the object of the verb is called the subject of the 
infinitive. The subject of an infinitive is in the objective cas Q - 

A few simple verbs, such as let, hear, see, etc., take in this con- 
struction the simple infinitive; as, Let me go; I saw him fall. 

V. The participial infinitive, like the noun, takes a possessive 
noun or pronoun; as, — 

Much depends on Robert's receiving the message. 
His coming was not unexpected. 

EXERCISE I. 

Point out the infinitives in the folloiving sentences, and state 
the construction of each : — 

1. For him, to hear is to obey. 

2. A sower went forth to sow. 

3. He taught her to see new beauties in nature. — Irving. 



CONSTRUCTIONS OF INFINITIVES. 153 

4. I come not, friends, to steal away your hearts. 

5. The sun is just about to set. —Tennyson. 

6. And many a holy text around she strews 
That teach the rustic moralist to die. — Gray. 

7. She heard the birds sing, she 
Saw the sun shine. —Longfellow. 

8. After tarrying a few days in the bay, our voyagers 
weighed anchor, to explore a mighty river which emptied into 
the bay. — Irving. 

9. And fools who came to scoff remained to pray. 

10. I did send to you for gold to pay my legions. — Shakespeare. 

11. Hast thou a charm to stay the morning star? — Coleridge. 

12. Upon the landlord's leaving the room, I could not 
avoid expressing my concern for the stranger. — Goldsmith. 

13. To live in hearts we leave behind 

Is not to die. — Campbell. 

14. Beyond that I seek not to penetrate the veil. — Webster. 

EXERCISE II. 

I. Write three sentences containi?ig the simple infinitive 
without to. 

II. Write four sentences containing infinitives used like 
nouns. 

III. Write two sentences containing infinitives used like 
adjectives. 

IV. Write three sentences contaming infinitives used like 
adverbs. 

K* 



154 LESSONS IN ENGLISH. 

LESSON LV. 

CONSTRUCTIONS OF PARTICIPLES. 

Participles modify nouns or pronouns. They may be used — 
I. Attributively; as, — 

The rising sun hides the stars. 
II. Appositively, usually equivalent to an implied clause ; as, — ■ 
Truth, crushed to earth, shall rise again. 

III. Predicatively ; as, — 

Here it runs sparkling. 
He kept us waiting. 

IV. Absolutely; as, — 

The service having closed, we left the church. 

EXERCISE I. • 

Parse the participles and the infinitives in the following 
sentences : — 

i. As we stood waiting on the platform, a telegraphic 
message was handed in silence to my companion. — Hoi.mks. 

2. An uprooted tree came drifting along the current, and 
became entangled among the rocks. 

3. " Ah ! " cried he, drawing back in surprise. 

4. The turban folded about his head 

Was daintily wrought of the palm-leaf braid. 



CONSTRUCTIONS OF PARTICIPLES. 155 

5. At each corner of the building is an octagon tower, 
surmounted by a gilt ball and weathercock. — Irving. 

6. All the stories of ghosts and goblins that he had heard 
in the afternoon, now came crowding upon his recollection. 

7. I saw you sitting in the house, and I no longer there. 

8. The snow fell hissing in the brine, 

And the billows frothed like yeast. — Longfellow. 

9. Upon his advancing toward me with a whisper, I 
expected to hear some secret piece of news. —Addison. 

10. A word fitly spoken is like apples of gold in pictures 
of silver. — Bible. 

11. His father being at the warehouse, did not yet know 
of the accident. — George Eliot. 

12. The wind having failed at sunset, the crew set to work 
with a will. 

13. Here is a good place to test the qualities of a book 
as an out-door companion. 

14. There is not wind enough to twirl 
The one red leaf, the last of its clan, 
That dances as often as dance it can, 
Hanging so light, and hanging so high, 

On the topmost twig that looks up at the sky.— Coleridge. 

15. The talent of success is nothing more than doing what 
you can do, well. — Longfellow. 

16. To reverse the rod, to spell the charm backward, to 
break the ties which bound a stupefied people to the seat of 
enchantment, was the noble aim of Milton. — Macaulay. 



156 LESSONS IN ENGLISH. 



SUMMARY. 
RULES OF SYNTAX. 

i. The subject of a finite verb is in the nominative case. 

2. The verbs be, become, appear, look, seem, etc., and the passive 
forms of the transitive verbs make, appoint, etc., take the same case 
after them as before them. 

3. A noun added to another noun to explain or describe its 
meaning is in the same case by apposition. 

4. A noun or a pronoun used absolutely with a participle is in 
the nominative case absolute. 

5. A noun used in addressing a person or a thing, is in the 
nominative case of address. 

6. A noun or a pronoun used, like an adjective, to modify another 
noun, is in the possessive case. 

7. Transitive verbs in the active voice, and their participles and 
infinitives, take nouns and pronouns in the objective case. 

8. Verbs like give, buy, teach, etc., take two objects — the one 
direct, the other indirect. 

9. The verbs make, appoint, choose, etc., are followed in the 
active voice by a direct object and an objective predicate. 

10. Prepositions are followed by nouns or pronouns in the 
objective case. 

11. Nouns used adverbially are in the objective case. 

12. The subject of an infinitive is in the objective case. 

13. A pronoun must agree in person, number, and gender with 
its antecedent. 

14. An adjective modifies a noun or a pronoun. 

15. A verb must agree with its subject in person and in number. 

16. An adverb modifies a verb, an adjective, or another adverb. 



DIFFERENT USES OF THE SAME WORD. 157 

LESSON LVI. 

DIFFERENT USES OF THE SAME WORD. 

Give a reason for the classification of each italicized word in the 
following examples : — 

All: 

i. All men are mortal. (Adjective.) 

2. All joined in the song. (Adjective Pronoun.) 

3. My all is lost. (Noun.) 

4. I am all alone. (Adverb.) 

As: 

i. He wrote as (Adverb of Degree) well as (Conjunctive 
Adverb) he could. 

2. As he was ambitious, I slew him. (Conjunction.) 

3. The days of man are but as grass [is]. (Conjunction.) 

4. We are such stuff as dreams are made of. (Relative 
Pronoun.) 

Before : 

1. He stood before me. (Preposition.) 

2. Look before you leap. (Conjunction.) 

3. She had not entered this hall before. (Adverb.) 

Both: 

1. Stretch out both thy hands. (Adjective.) 

2. She both laughed and cried. (Conjunction.) 

But: 

1. Fools admire, but men of sense approve. (Conjunction.) 

2. Nought is heard but [except] the lashing waves. (Prep- 
osition.) 



158 LESSONS IN ENGLISH. 

3. Man wants but little here below. (Adverb.) 

4. There is no fireside, howsoe'er defended, 

But has one vacant chair. (Relative Pronoun.) 

Else: 

1. Anybody else would consent. (Adjective.) 

2. Where else could he go? (Adverb.) 

3. I have no tears, else would I weep for thee. (Conjunc- 
tion.) 

Enough : 

1. Enough is as good as a feast. (Noun.) 

2. They have books enough. (Adjective.) 

3. He has worked long enough. (Adverb.) 

Except: 

1. No one heard the alarm except me. (Preposition.) 

2. I will not let thee go, except thou bless me. (Conjunction.) 

For: 

1. We shall wait for the boat. (Preposition.) 

2. I called, for I was wild with fear. (Conjunction.) 

However: 

1. However busy he may be, he will aid you. (Adverb.) 

2. These conditions, however, he could not accept. (Con- 
junction.) 

Like: 

1. This box is like yours. (Adjective.) 

2. He ran like a deer. (Adverb.) 

3. I like to read. (Verb.) 



SELECTIONS FOR STUDY. 159 

Since : 

i. I have not thought of the matter since. (Adverb.) 

2. We have not heard from him since morning. (Preposition.) 

3. Since the books are here, we will use them. (Conjunction.) 

So: 

i. So ended the conflict. (Adverb.) 

2. The library was closed, so we returned home. (Con- 
junction.) 

That: 

1. That book is lost. (Adjective.) 

2. That is the cause of the trouble. (Adjective Pronoun.) 

3. Here is the man that gave the order. (Relative Pronoun.) 

4. I know that the work will be done. (Conjunction.) 

The: 

1. The way was long. (Adjective.) 

2. The more, the merrier. (Adverb of Degree.) 



LESSON LVII. 

SELECTIONS FOR STUDY. 

Parse the italicized words in the folloiving exercises, giving 
a full explanation of the different constructions : — ■ 

EXERCISE I. 

Whoever has made a voyage up the Hudson, must 
remember tne Kaatskill Mountains. They are a dismembered 



160 LESSONS IN ENGLISH. 

branch of the great Appalachian family, and are seen away 
to the west of the river, swelling up to a noble height, and 
lording it over the surrounding country. Every change of 
season, every change of weather, indeed, every hour of the 
day, produces some change in the magical hues and shapes 
of these mountains ; and they are regarded by all the good 
wives, far and near, as perfect barometers. When the 
weather is fair and settled, they are clothed in blue and 
purple, and print their bold outlines on the clear evening 
sky ; but sometimes, when the rest of the landscape is cloud- 
less, they will gather a hood of gray vapors about their 
summits, which in the last rays of the setting sun, will glow 
and /z^/z/ up like 3. crozvu of glory. — Washington Irving. 

EXERCISE II. 

"Have, then, thy wish!" He whistled shrill, 
And he was anszvered from the hill; 
Wild as the scream of the curlew, 
From crag to crag the signal flew. 
Instant, through copse and heath, arose 
Bonnets and spears and bended bows; 
On right, on left, above, below, 
Sprung up at once the lurking foe ; 
From shingles gray their lances start, 
The bracken bush sends forth the dart, 
The rushes and the willow-wand 
Are bristling into axe and brand, 
And every tuft of broom gives life 
To plaided warrior armed for strife. — Sir Walter Scott. 



SELECTIONS FOR STUDY. 161 



EXERCISE III. 

All the inhabitants of the little village are busy. One is 
clearing a spot on the verge of the forest for his homestead ; 
another is hewing the trunk of a fallen pine-tree, in order to 
build himself a dwelling ; a third is hoeing in his field of 
Indian corn. Here comes a huntsman out of the woods, 
dragging a bear which he has shot, and shouting to the 
neighbors to lend him a hand. There goes a man to the 
sea-shore, with a spade and a bucket, to dig a mess of 
clams, which were a principal article of food with the first 
settlers. Scattered here and //^/r are two or three dusky 
figures, clad in mantles 0/" fur, with ornaments of bone 
hanging from their ears, and the feathers of wild birds in 
their coal-black hair. They have belts of shell-work j/««^ 
across their shoulders, and are armed with bows and arrows 
and flint-headed spears. These are an Indian sagamore and 
his attendants, who have come A? gaze at the labors of the 
white men. And now rises a cry that a pack of wolves /zaw 
seized a young calf in the pasture; and every man snatches 
up his gun or pike and runs in chase of the marauding 
beasts. — Nathaniel Hawthorne. 



Part Fourth. 

STRUCTURE AND ANALYSIS OF SENTENCES. 
LESSON LVIII. 

STRUCTURE OF THE SENTENCE. 

A sentence is the expression of a complete thought in words. 

A sentence consists of two parts : the part of a sentence that 
shows what is spoken of is called the subject; the part that tells 
something about the thing spoken of is called the predicate. 

The subject of a sentence consists of a noun (or of a word or 
words equivalent to a noun), alone or with additional words called 
adjuncts or modifiers. The subject noun without modifiers is 
called the grammatical or bare subject; as, Birds fly. 

The grammatical subject with its modifiers is called the logical 
or complete subject; as, — 

The inhabitants of the little village are busy. 

The predicate of a sentence is a verb, alone or with adjuncts. 
The predicate verb without adjuncts is called the grammatical 
or bare predicate ; as, The sun rose. 

Some verbs do not form a predicate alone. A verb that 
requires an additional word to complete the predicate is called a 
verb of incomplete predication. 

i. When the predicate is completed by the object of the action, 
the verb is called transitive ; as, War brings sorrow. 

163 



164 LESSONS IN ENGLISH. 

2. When the predicate is completed by an adjunct describing the 
subject, the verb is intransitive (or in the passive voice), and the 
completing adjunct is called a complement ; as, The sky is blue ; 
The boy was called John. 

An intransitive verb of incomplete predication is sometimes called 
a copula, since it connects or couples the subject with a word 
describing the subject; as, — 

Washington was a patriot. She looks happy. 

A transitive verb of incomplete predication is said to be factitive 
when it takes a complement which describes the direct object of the 
verb; as,- — 

They made him captain. We set the prisoner free. 

The grammatical predicate with its adjuncts is called the logical 
or complete predicate; as, — 

We are the prisoners of the night. 

Elements of a Sentence. 

The elements of a sentence are words, phrases, or clauses. 
A phrase is a combination of words performing a distinct office 
in a sentence, but not having a subject and a predicate; as, — 

Birds in the thicket sing. 
Phrases may be named according to their form : — 
i. A phrase introduced by a preposition is called a preposi- 
tional phrase ; as, 

The key to pleasure is honest work. 

?.. A phrase introduced by an infinitive is called an infinitive 
phrase; as, — 

The sun begins to gild the morning sky. 



STRUCTURE OF THE SENTENCE. 165 

3. A phrase introduced by a participle is called a participial 
phrase ; as, — 

The pillars supporting the roof are strong. 

4. A phrase made up of an appositive noun and its modifiers is 
called an appositive phrase ; as, — 

He comes, the herald of a noisy world. 

Phrases may be named according to the office performed by 
each : — 

1. A phrase that performs the office of an adjective is called an 
adjective phrase; as, — 

We heard the roar of the ocean. 

2. A phrase that performs the office of an adverb is called an 
adverbial phrase; as, — 

Once more he stept into the street. 

3. A phrase that performs the office of a noun is called a sub- 
stantive phrase ; as, — 

To climb steep hills requires slow pace at first. 

A clause is a combination of words performing a distinct office 
in a sentence, and having a subject and a predicate; as, — 

Uneasy lies the head that wears a crown. 

1. A clause that expresses the leading or principal thought of a 
sentence is called an independent or principal clause ; as, — 

They trimmed the lamps as the sun went down. 

2. A clause that depends upon some other part of the sentence for its 
full meaning is called a dependent or subordinate clause ; as, — 

They trimmed the lamps as the sun zvent down. 



166 LESSONS IN ENGLISH. 

Principal Elements. 

The grammatical subject and the grammatical predicate are the 
principal elements of a sentence; as, — 

The shadows dance upon the wall. 

Subordinate Elements. 

The modifiers of the principal elements in a sentence are called 
subordinate elements; as, — 

The light of smiles shall fill again 
The lids that overflow with tears. 

When the predicate verb is of incomplete predication, the object 
or the complement may be called a modifier of the grammatical 
predicate ; as, — 

i. The sexton rang the bell. 

2. My mirror is the mountain spring. 

Structure of Sentences. 

Sentences may be simple, complex, or compound. 

A sentence that expresses one thought is called a simple 
sentence ; as, — 

The march of the human mind is slow. 

A sentence consisting of one principal clause and one or more 
subordinate clauses is called a complex sentence ; as, — 

Some murmur when their sky is clear. 

A sentence made up of two or more independent members is 
called a compound sentence ; as, — 

/ listened, but I could not hear. 



THE SIMPLE SENTENCE. 167 



EXERCISE I. 



I. State the difference between the grammatical subject and 
the logical subject, and give examples of each. 2. State the 
difference between the principal elements and the subordinate 
elements of a sentence. Give examples 



EXERCISE II. 



1. Write three sentences containing adjective phrases. 

2. Write three sentences containing adverbial phrases. 

3. Write three sentences containing substantive phrases. 



LESSON LIX. 

THE SIMPLE SENTENCE. 

A simple sentence is a sentence that expresses one 
thought. 

The Subject. 

The subject of a simple sentence may be — 
I. A noun ; as, — 

Birds have many enemies. 
II. A pronoun; as, — 

We expected a different answer. 
III. An infinitive, or an infinitive phrase; as, — 

1. To delay is dangerous. 

2. To say nothing is often better than to speak. 

3. Saying nothing is often better than speaking. 



168 LESSONS IN ENGLISH. 

Modifiers of the Subject. 
The subject may be modified by — 

1. An adjective ; as, — 

Still waters run deep. 
II. A noun or a pronoun in the possessive case; as, — 
i. Edward's friends were present. 
2. My opinion is not changed. 

III. An appositive word or phrase. 

i. I, Paid, have written it with mine own hand. 

2. Hope, the balm of life, soothes us under every mis- 
fortune. 

IV. A prepositional phrase, as adjective; as, — 

The paths of glory lead but to the grave. 
V. A participle, or a participial phrase; as, — 
i. Having sung, she left the room. 
2. Advancing cautiously, he opened the door. 
VI. An infinitive ; as, — 

His desire to learn is great. 

The Predicate. 
The predicate of a simple sentence may be — 
I. A complete verb — 

i. In a simple form ; as, The sun rose. 
2. In a compound form ; as, The sun has risen. 
II. An incomplete intransitive verb completed by — 
i. A noun; as, He was secretary. 
2. A pronoun ; as, It was he. 



THE SIMPLE SENTENCE. 169 

3. An adjective; as, Iron is hard. 

4. An infinitive, or an infinitive phrase ; as, To see her is 
to love her. 

5. An adverb, or an adverbial phrase ; as, The moon is 
up; All the household are at rest. 

III. An incomplete transitive verb with its object — 

1. A noun ; as, I hear music. 

2. A pronoun ; as, We saw them. 

3. An infinitive, or an infinitive phrase ; as, She likes 
to read. 

4. Or objects ; as, He gave John a book. 

5. And objective complement; as, They made him treas- 
urer; The heat turned the milk sour. 

Modifiers of the Predicate. 
The predicate verb may be modified by — 
I. An adverb ; as, — 

The bells ring merrily. 
II. A prepositional phrase, as adverb; as, — 
He went towards the river. 

III. An infinitive, or an infinitive phrase; as, — 

They came to see the paintings. 

IV. An adverbial objective; as, — 

She remained two hours. 
V. A nominative absolute phrase; as, — 

The war being ended, the soldiers returned. 

The phrase, " the war being ended," gives a reason for the return of the soldiers. 
It is an adverbial phrase, being nearly equivalent in meaning to the adverbial clause, 
" as the war was ended." 

L* 



LESSONS IN ENGLISH. 



When the subject, the object, or the complement consists of two 
or more connected terms, it is said to be compound ; as, — 

Games and carols closed the busy day. 
Learn to labor and to wait. 
Her voice was low and sweet. 

Modifiers may be simple, compound, or complex — 
A modifier consisting of a single word or phrase is simple. 

The ship went slowly. 

We spoke not a word of sorrow. 

A modifier consisting of two or more connected words or phrases 
is compound ; as, — 

The ship went slowly and smoothly. 

His cohorts were gleaming in purple and gold. 

A modifier consisting of a word or phrase with modifiers of its 
own is complex ; as, — 

The ship went very slowly. 

Here rests his head upon the lap of earth. 

A series of adjectives may form a compound or a complex 
modifier ; as, — 

1. He was an honest, temperate, forgiving man. 

2. Two large ehn trees stood near the house. 

In the first example the adjectives are co-ordinate, each modi- 
fying the same noun. Adjectives used in this manner may be sepa- 
rated by commas or joined by conjunctions. 

In the second example the adjectives form a complex modifier. 
Thus — 



THE SIMPLE SENTENCE. 171 

Two modifies the whole expression large elm trees. 
Large modifies elm trees. 
Elm modifies trees. 



EXERCISE I. 

Write sentences in which the subject is- 



A noun modified by an adjective. 
A noun modified by a possessive pronoun. 
A noun modified by an appositive phrase. 
A noun modified by a prepositional phrase. 
A pronoun modified by a participial phrase. 
An infinitive phrase. 



EXERCISE II. 

Write sentences in which the predicate is — 



A complete verb modified by an adverb. 

A complete verb modified by a prepositional phrase. 

A complete verb modified by an infinitive phrase. 

A complete verb modified by an adverbial objective. 

An intransitive verb completed by a noun. 

An intransitive verb completed by a pronoun. 

An intransitive verb completed by an adjective. 

An intransitive verb completed by an infinitive. 

A transitive verb with an infinitive as a direct object. 

A transitive verb with a direct and an indirect 



9- 

10. 
object. 

ii. A transitive verb with a direct object and an objective 
complement. 



172 LESSONS IN ENGLISH. 

LESSON LX. 

ANALYSIS OF SIMPLE SENTENCES. 

Analyze orally the following sentences, thus : — 

i. Tell the kind of sentence. 

2. Name the subject and the predicate. 

3. Tell what the subject consists of. 

4. Tell what the predicate consists of 

Example I. — This old ship had been laden with immense 
wealth. 

Oral Analysis. 

1. This is a simple declarative sentence. 

2. The subject is this old ship; the predicate, had been laden 
with immense wealth. 

3. The subject consists of the noun ship, with the adjectives this 
and old, of which old modifies ship, and this modifies old ship. 

4. The predicate consists of the verb had been laden, modified 
by the adverbial phrase with immense wealth. 

Or, 
Write the analysis briefly as follows : — 

Written Analysis. 

Simple Declarative Sentence. 

I. — Subject. 

Subject This old ship. 

Subject noun ship. 



ANALYSIS OF SIMPLE SENTENCES. 173 

(this. (Adjective?) 

Modifiers of subject noun ....<. , .. . „ 

J J J I old. {Adjective^ 

II. — Predicate. 

Predicate had been laden with immense wealth. 

Predicate verb had been laden. 

Modifier of predicate verb .... with immense wealth. {Adverbial phrase.) 



Example II. — The prospect of success seemed small. 

Oral Analysis. 

i. This is a simple declarative sentence. 

2. The subject is the prospect of success; the predicate, seemed 
small. 

3. The subject consists of the noun prospect, modified by the ad- 
jective the and by the adjective phrase of success. 

4. The predicate consists of the verb seemed, completed by the 
adjective small. 

Written Analysis. 

Simple Declarative Sentence. 

I. — Subject. 

Subject The prospect of success. 

Subject noun prospect. 

,, .., , ,. (the. (Adjective.) 

Modifiers of subject noun ....<■ ,. . 

(of success. {Adjective phrase.) 

II. — Predicate. 

Predicate seemed small. 

Predicate verb seemed. 

Complement small. {Adjective.) 



174 LESSONS IN ENGLISH. 

Example III. —Saving obtained the desired information, he 
left the room. 

Oral Analysis. 
i. This is a simple declarative sentence. 

2. The subject is he having obtained the desired information ; the 
predicate, left the room. 

3. The subject consists of the pronoun he, modified by the parti- 
cipial phrase, having obtained the desired information. 

4. The predicate consists of the verb left, completed by the ob- 
ject room, which is modified by the. 

Written Analysis. 

Simple Declarative Sentence. 

I. — Subject. 

Subject he having obtained the desired information. 

Subject pronoun he. 

Modifier of subject pronoun . . . Having obtained the desired information. {Par- 
ticipial phrase?) 

II. — Predicate. 

Predicate t left the room. 

Predicate verb left. 

Object room. {Noun.) 

Modifier of object the. {Adjective?) 

Example IV. — It is useless to deny the fact. 

Oral Analysis. 

1. This is a simple declarative sentence. 

2. The grammatical subject is it, which stands for the logical sub- 
ject, to deny the fact; the predicate, is useless. 



ANALYSIS OF SIMPLE SENTENCES. 175 

3. The logical subject is the infinitive phrase, to deny the fact, 
placed after the verb. 

4. The predicate consists of the verb is, completed by the ad- 
jective useless. 

Written Analysis. 

Simple Declarative Sentence. 

I. — Subject. 

Logical subject To deny the fact. {Infinitive phrase.) 

Grammatical subject It. 

II. — Predicate. 

Predicate is useless. 

Predicate verb is. 

Complement . useless. (Adjective?) 



Sentences for Analysis. 

EXERCISE I. 

1. The decision of the judge increased the irritation of 
the people. 

2. The best honey is the product of the milder parts of 
the temperate zone. — John Burroughs. 

3. The captain's share of the treasure was enough tc 
make him comfortable for the rest of his days. — Hawthorne. 

4. I stand upon my native hills again. —Bryant. 

5. Every man is a missionary for good or for evil. 

6. We are equally served by receiving and by imparting. 

7. A low, white-washed room,'| with a stone floor, care- 
fully scrubbed, served for parlor, kitchen, and hall-— Irving. 



176 LESSONS IN ENGLISH. 

8. My friend, Sir Roger, being a good churchman, has 
beautified the inside of his church with several texts of his 

Own choosing. —Addison. 

9. It is the glory of a man to pass by an offence. 

10. The great secret of a good style is to have proper 
words in proper places. — E. P. Whipple. 

EXERCISE II. 

i. Thinking it would be cold in the cave, we had 
brought warm wraps. 

2. How strangely the past is peeping over the shoulders 
of the present! 

3. The words of mercy were upon his lips. 

4. Chimney swallows have almost abandoned hollow trees 
for their nesting-places, even in our most thickly wooded 
areas, preferring our chimneys. 

5. Early next morning I went to visit the grounds. 

6. Having been accustomed to the control of large 
bodies of men, I had not much difficulty in comprehending 
the situation. 

7. Hundreds of other carriages, crowded with their 
thousands of men, were hastening to the great city. 

8. The ' Stamp Act was a direct tax laid upon the 
whole American people by Parliament. — John Fiske. 

9. I see everywhere the gardens, the vineyards, the 
orchards, with the various greens of the olive, the fig, and 
the orange. — C. D. Warner. 

10. A truly great man borrows no lustre from splendid 
ancestry. 



v 



v.. 



THE COMPLEX SENTENCE. 177 

ii. Success being hopeless, preparations were made for 
a retreat. 

12. To bear is to conquer our fate. —Campbell. 



LESSON LXI. 

THE COMPLEX SENTENCE. 

A complex sentence is a sentence consisting of one prin- 
cipal clause and of one or more subordinate clauses ; as, — 

He who would search for pearls must dive below. 

The principal clause expresses the leading or principal thought of 
a sentence, but it does not express the complete thought. 

The subordinate clause performs the office of a noun, an adjec- 
tive, or an adverb, and is usually introduced by a conjunction or by 
a relative pronoun. 

I. — Substantive Clauses. 

A clause that performs the office of a noun is called a noun 
clause or a substantive clause. 
A substantive clause may be used — 

i. As the subject of a verb; as, — 

That you have wronged me doth appear in this. 

2. As a predicate nominative; as, — 

The result was that the treaty was signed. 

3. As the object of a transitive verb; as, — 

He knows who zvrote the letter. 



178 LESSONS IN ENGLISH. 

4. As the logical subject, defining a foregoing introductory, or 
grammatical subject ; as, — 

// was a fortunate thing that we met Jiim. 

5. As the object of a preposition; as, — 

The leader encouraged his men by what he said and by 
what he did. 

Substantive clauses are introduced by the conjunction that, and 
by the words how, when, who, what, etc. 

The conjunction that is often omitted when the noun clause follows 
the principal verb ; as, — 

I hope \that\ he will succeed. 

II. — Adjective Clauses. 
A clause that performs the office of an adjective is called an 
adjective clause; as, — 

Sweet are the thoughts that savor of content. 
I remember, I remember 

The house where I ivas bom. 
Adjective clauses are introduced by the relative pronouns who, 
which, that, what, and by the adverbs when, where, whence, etc. 

III. — Adverbial Clauses. 
A clause that performs the office of an adverb is called an adver- 
bial clause. 

An adverbial clause may denote — 

1. Time, introduced by after, before, since, till, when, while; as, — 

Let us live while we live. 

2. Place, introduced by where, whence, whither ; as, — 

I shall remain where I am. 



THE COMPLEX SENTENCE. 179 

3. Manner, introduced by as; as, — 

The days of man are but as grass [is]. 

4. Degree, introduced by than, as ; as, — 

My days are swifter than a weaver's shuttle [is swift]. 
Enough is as good as a feast \Js good]. 

5. Cause or Reason, introduced by because, for, since, as, 
that; as, — 

Freely we serve, because we freely love. 
Since you desire it, I will remain. 

6. Purpose, introduced by that, lest; as, — 

Open the door that they may enter. 
Take heed lest ye fall. 

7. Condition, introduced by if, unless, except, but; as, — 

I will go if you are ready. 

The house will be sold unless the money is paid. 
Except ye repent, ye shall all likewise perish. 
It never rains but it pours. 

8. Concession, introduced by though, although; as, — 

Though he works hard, he does not succeed. 
Although he spoke, he said nothing. 

EXERCISE I. — SUBSTANTIVE CLAUSES. 

Mention the substantive clauses in the following sentences, 
and tell how each is used: — 

1. We can prove that the earth is round. 

2. What he said was not understood. 



u 



180 LESSONS IN ENGLISH. 

3. That the work is well done is not to be denied. 

4. The consequence was that the army gained a victory. 

5. It is generally admitted that they acted with energy 
and foresight. 

6. He did not know what the message meant. 

7. The fact that he was absent is significant. 

8. But that I am forbid, I could a tale unfold. 

EXERCISE II. — ADJECTIVE CLAUSES. 

Point otit the adjective clauses in the following sentences, 
and tell what each modifies: — 

1. He that is giddy thinks the world turns round. 

2. In the evening we reached a village where I had deter- 
mined to pass the night. 

3. It was the time when lilies blow. 

4. The evil that men do lives after them. 

5. I had a dream which was not all a dream. 

6. He serves all who dares be true. 

7. Nature never did betray the heart that loved her. 

8. One by one we miss the voices which we loved so well 
to hear. 

EXERCISE III. —ADVERBIAL, CLAUSES. 

Mention the adverbial clauses in the following sentences, and 
state what each denotes : — 

1. My punishment is greater than I can bear. 

2. Make hay while the sun shines. 

3. Since my country calls me, I obey. " 

4. He sleeps wherever night overtakes him." 



ANALYSIS OF COMPLEX SENTENCES. 181 

5. Forgive us our debts, as we forgive our debtors. 

6. Love not sleep, lest thou come to poverty. 

7. He flourisheth as a flower of the field. 

8. Whither thou goest, I will go. 

9. Not as the conqueror comes 
They, the true-hearted, came. 

10. It droppeth as the gentle rain from heaven. 

11. Though I be rude in speech, yet not in knowledge. 

12. Your people are as cheerless as your clime [is cheerless]. 



LESSON LXII. 

ANALYSIS OF COMPLEX SENTENCES. 

To analyze a complex sentence — 

1. Tell the kind of sentence. 

2. Name the subject and the predicate of the sentence. 

3. Tell what the subject consists of. 

4. Tell what the predicate consists of. 

■ 5. Analyze the subordinate clause or clauses. 

Example I. — That man is formed for social life is acknowl- 
edged by all. 

Oral Analysis. 

1. This is a complex declarative sentence. 

2. The subject is the noun clause, that man is formed for social 
life ; the predicate, is acknowledged by all. 

3. The predicate consists of the verb is acknowledged, modified by 
the adverbial phrase by all. 



182 LESSONS IN ENGLISH. 

4. The subordinate clause is introduced by the conjunction that. 

5. The subject of the subordinate clause is the noun man ; the 
predicate, is formed for social life. 

6. The predicate of the clause consists of the verb is formed, 
modified by the adverbial phrase for social life. 

Written Analysis. 

Complex Declarative Sentence. 

I. — Subject. 

Subject That man is formed for social life. {Noun clause.") 

II. — Predicate. 

Predicate is acknowledged by all. 

Predicate verb is acknowledged. 

Modifier of predicate verb ... by all. {Adverbial phrase?) 

Subordinate Clause. 
Introduced by the conjunction that. 
I. — Subject. 
Subject man. 

II. — Predicate. 

Predicate is formed for social life. 

Predicate verb is formed. 

Modifier of predicate verb ... for social life. {Adverbial phrase.) 

Example II. — The fact that he was present is sufficient* 

Oral Analysis. 

1. This is a complex declarative sentence. 

2. The subject is the fact that he was present ; the predicate, is 
sufficient. 



ANALYSIS OF COMPLEX SENTENCES. 183 

3. The subject consists of the noun fact, modified by the adjective 
the, and by the appositive noun clause that he was present. 

4. The predicate consists of the verb is, completed by the adjec- 
tive sufficient. 

5 . The subordinate clause is connected to the noun fact by the 
conjunction that. 

6. The subject of the subordinate clause is he; the predicate, was 
present. 

7. The predicate of the clause consists of the verb was, completed 
by the adjective present. 

Written Analysis. 

Complex Declarative Sentence. 

I. — Subject. 

Subject The fact that he was present. 

Subject noun fact. 

„..,.- . ,. (-the. (Adjective?) 

Modifiers of subject noun . . . . < , „ . . , N 

I that he was present. {Appositive clause.) 

II. — Predicate. 

Predicate is sufficient. 

Predicate verb is. 

Complement sufficient. (Adjective.) 

Subordinate Clause. 
Connected to the noun fact by the conjunction that. 
I. — Subject. 
Subject he. 

II. — Predicate. 

Predicate was present. 

Predicate verb was. 

Complement present. (Adjective.) 



184 LESSONS IN ENGLISH. 

Example III.— The people believed in him, because he was 
honest and true. 

Written Analysis. 

Complex Declarative Sentence. 

I. — Subject. 

Subject The people. 

Subject noun people. 

Modifier of subject noun .... the. {Adjective?) 

II. — Predicate. 

Predicate believed in him, because he was honest and true. 

Predicate verb believed. 

{in him. {Adverbial phrase?) 
because he was honest and true. {Adverbial 
clause of Reason.} 

Subordinate Clause. 
Connected to the verb believed, by the conjunction because, expressing Reason. 
I. — Subject. 
Subject he. 

II. — Predicate. 

Predicate was honest and true. 

Predicate verb was. 

Complement of predicate .... honest and true. {Adjectives connected by and.) 

Example IV. — Beware lest you fall. 

Written Analysis. 

Complex Imperative Sentence. 

I. — Subject. 

Subject [ vou ] {understood). 



ANALYSIS OF COMPLEX SENTENCES. 185 

II. — Predicate. 

Predicate Beware lest you fall. 

Predicate verb Beware. 

Modifier of predicate verb . . . lest you fall. {Adverbial clause of Purpose.) 

Subordinate Clause. 

Connected to verb beware, by the conjunction lest, expressing Purpose. 

Subject you. 

Predicate fall. 

Analyse the sentences hi the following exercises : — 

EXERCISE I. 

i. As we approached the house, we heard the sound of 
music. 

2. Such a fortnight in the woods as I have been lightly- 
sketching, will bring to him who rightly uses it a rich 
return. 

3. If we seek to acquire the style of another, we 
renounce the individual style which we might have acquired. 

4. " Good speed ! " cried the watch, as the gate-bolts 
undrew. 

5. So thick were the fluttering snow-flakes, that even 
the trees were hidden by them the greater part of the time. 

6. I now found myself among noble avenues of oaks 
and elms, whose vast size bespoke the growth of centuries. 

7. Nothing is so dangerous as pride. 

8. We are happy now because God wills it. — Lowell. 

9. A great black cloud had been gathering in the sky 
for some time past, although it had not yet overspread 
the sun. 

M* 



186 LESSONS IN ENGLISH. 

10. Here I sit among my descendants, in my old arm- 
chair, and immemorial corner, while the firelight throws an 
appropriate glory round my venerable frame. —Hawthorne. 

ii. He who sets a great example is great. —Victor Hugo. 

12. I saw from the beach, when the morning was shining, 
A bark o'er the waters move gloriously on. —Moore. 

EXERCISE II. 

1. The song that moves a Nation's heart 
Is in itself a deed. —Tennyson. 

2. As I crossed the bridge over the Avon on my return, 
I paused to contemplate the distant church in which the 
poet lies buried. —Irving. 

3. We hold these truths to be self-evident : that all men 
are created equal ; that they are endowed by their Creator with 
certain unalienable rights ; that among these are life, liberty, 
and the pursuit of happiness. 

4. We can almost fancy that we are visiting him 
[Milton] in his small lodging; that we see him sitting at 
the old organ beneath the faded green hangings ; that we 
can catch the quick twinkle of his eyes, rolling in vain to 
find the day ; that we are reading in the lines of his noble 
countenance the proud and mournful history of his glory 
and his affliction. — Macaulay. 

5. When the woodpecker is searching for food, or laying 
siege to some hidden grub, the sound of his hammer is dead 
or muffled, and is heard but a few yards. It is only upon dry, 
seasoned timber, freed of its bark, that he beats his reveille 
to spring and woos his mate. — John Burroughs. 



THE COMPOUND SENTENCE. 187 



LESSON LXIII. 

THE COMPOUND SENTENCE. 

A compound sentence is a sentence made up of two or 
more independent members ; as, — 

The walls are high, and the shores are steep. 
Each member of a compound sentence, by itself, forms a 
complete sentence, which may be simple or complex ; as, — 
The Mayor was dumb, and the Council stood 
As if they were changed into blocks of zvood. 
i. The Mayor was dumb. (Simple Sentence.) 
2. The Council stood as if they were changed into blocks 
of wood. (Complex Sentence.) 

The connective between the members may be omitted, but 
the relation between the members should be stated in the 
analysis; as, — 

The night is chill, the cloud is gray. 

To analyze a compotmd sentence — 
i. Tell the kind of sentence. 

2. Name the different members, and tell how they are connected. 

3. Analyze in order the different members of the sentence. 

Example. — The merchants shut up their warehouses, and 
the laboring men stood idle about the wharves. 

Oral Analysis. 

1. This is a compound declarative sentence, consisting of two 
simple members connected by the copulative conjunction, and. 

2. The subject of the first member is the merchants; the predi 



188 LESSONS IN ENGLISH. 

cate, shut up their warehouses. The subject consists of the noun 
merchants, modified by the adjective the. The predicate consists of the 
verb shut, modified by the adverb up, and completed by the object 
warehouses. The object is modified by the possessive pronoun their. 
3. The subject of the second member is the laboring men ; the 
predicate, stood idle about the wharves. The subject consists of the 
noun men, modified by the phrase the laboring, of which laboring 
modifies men, and the modifies laboring men. The predicate con- 
sists of the verb stood, completed by the adjective idle, and modi- 
fied by the adverbial phrase about the wharves. 

Written Analysis. 

Compound Declarative Sentence. 

Two members connected by the conjunction and. 

FIRST MEMBER. 

I. — Subject. 

Subject The merchants. 

Subject noun merchants. 

Modifier of subject noun .... the. (Adjective.) , 

II. — Predicate. 

Predicate shut up their warehouses. 

Predicate verb shut. 

Modifier of predicate verb . . . up. (Adverb.) 

Object warehouses. 

Modifier of object their. (Possessive pronoun.) 

SECOND MEMBER. 

I. — Subject. 

Subject the laboring men. 

Subject noun men. 

._ ... , ,. f laboring. (Adjective.) 

Modifiers of subject noun . . . . < 

J J (the. (Adjective^ 



THE COMPOUND SENTENCE. 189 

II. — Predicate. 

Predicate stood idle about the wharves. 

Predicate verb stood. 

Complement idle. 

Modifier of predicate verb . . . about the wharves. {Adverbial phrase?) 

Analyze the sentences in the following exercises : — 

EXERCISE I. 

1. Every day is a little life ; and our whole life is but 
a day repeated. 

2. The harvest truly is plenteous, but the laborers are few. 

3. They toil not, neither do they spin. 

4. It is one thing to be well informed; it is another to 
be wise. 

5. The ravine was full of sand now, but it had once 
been full of water. 

6. He touched his harp, and nations heard, entranced. 

7. The moon is up, and yet it is not night. — Byron. 

8. Stay, rivulet, nor haste to leave 

The lovely vale that lies around thee. — Bryant. 

9. They had played together in infancy ; they had 
worked together in manhood ; they were now tottering 
about, and gossiping away the evening of life ; and in a 
short time they will probably be buried together in the 
neighboring churchyard. —Irving. 

10. Now stir the fire, and close the shutters f ast. — Cowper, 

EXERCISE II. 

I. Lay down the axe ; fling by the spade ; 

Leave in its track the toiling plough. —Bryant. 



190 LESSONS IN ENGLISH. 

2. I turned in my saddle and made its girths tight. 

3. He assisted at their sports, made their playthings, 
taught them to fly kites and shoot marbles, and told them 
long stories of ghosts, witches, and Indians. —Irving. 

4. That was the grandest funeral 
That ever passed on earth ; 

Yet no man heard the trampling, 
Or saw the train go forth. 

5. But what chiefly characterized the colonists of Merry 
Mount was their veneration for the Maypole. It has made 
their true history a poet's tale. Spring decked the hallowed 
emblem with young blossoms and fresh green boughs ; Summer 
brought roses of the deepest blush, and the perfected foliage 
of the forest ; Autumn enriched it with that red and yellow 
gorgeousness which converts each wildwood leaf into a painted 
flower; and Winter silvered it with sleet, and hung it round 
with icicles, till it flashed in the cold sunshine, itself a frozen 
sunbeam. — Hawthorne. 



LESSON LXIV. 

SELECTIONS FOR ANALYSIS. 
I. 

THE ARROW AND THE SONG. 

I shot an arrow into the air, 
It fell to earth, I knew not where 
For, so swiftly it flew, the sight 
Could not follow it in its flight. 



SELECTIONS FOR ANALYSIS. 191 

I breathed a song into the air, 
It fell to earth, I knew not where ; 
For who has sight so keen and strong 
That it can follow the flight of song? 

Long, long afterward, in an oak 
I found the arrow, still unbroke ; 
And the song, from beginning to end, 
heart of a friend 

Henry Wadsworth Longfellow. 



RIP VAN WINKLE. 

The great error in Rip's composition was an insuperable 
aversion to all kinds of profitable labor. It could not be 
from the want of assiduity or perseverance; for he would sit 
on a wet rock, with a rod as long and heavy as a Tartar's 
lance, and fish all day without a murmur, even though he 
should not be encouraged by a single nibble. He would 
carry a fowling-piece on his shoulder for hours together, 
trudging through woods and swamps, and up hill and down 
dale, to shoot a few squirrels or wild pigeons. He would 
never refuse to assist a neighbor, even in the roughest 
toil, and was a foremost man at all country frolics for husk- 
ing Indian corn or building stone fences. The women of 
the village, too, used to employ him to run their errands, and 
to do such little odd jobs as their less obliging husbands 
would not do for them ; — in a word, Rip was ready to 
attend to anybody's business but his own ; but as to doing 



192 LESSONS IN ENGLISH. 

family duty, and keeping his farm in order, he found it 
impossible. 

In fact, he declared it was of no use to work on his farm ; 
it was the most pestilent little piece of ground in the whole 
country ; everything about it went wrong, and would go wrong 
in spite of him. His fences were continually falling to 
pieces ; his cow would either go astray, or get among the 
cabbages ; weeds were sure to grow quicker in his fields 
than anywhere else ; the rain always made a point of set- 
ting in just as he had some out-door work to do ; so that 
though his patrimonial estate had dwindled away under his 
management, acre by acre, until there was little more left 
than a mere patch of Indian corn and potatoes, yet it was 
the worst-conditioned farm in the neighborhood. 

— Washington Irving. 



THE POET'S SONG. 

The rain had fallen, the Poet arose, 

He passed by the town and out of the street, 
A light wind blew from the gates of the sun, 

And waves of shadow went over the wheat, 
And he sat him down in a lonely place, 

And chanted a melody loud and sweet, 
That made the wild-swan pause in her cloud, 

And the lark drop down at his feet. 

The swallow stopt as he hunted the bee, 

The snake slipt under a spray, 
The wild hawk stood with the down on his beak, 



SELECTIONS FOR ANALYSIS. 193 

And stared, with his foot on the prey, 
And the nightingale thought, " I have sung many songs, 

But never a one so gay, 
For he sings of what the world will be 

When the years have died away." — Alfred Tennyson. 



LEAVES. 

The leaves, as we shalL see immediately, are the feeders of 
the plant. Their own orderly habits of succession must not 
interfere with their main business of finding food. Where 
the sun and air are, the leaf must go, whether it be out of 
order or not. So, therefore, in any group, the first consider- 
ation with the young leaves is much like that of young bees, 
how to keep out of each other's way, that every one may at 
once leave its neighbors as much free-air pasture as possible, 
and obtain a relative freedom for itself. This would be a 
quite simple matter, and produce other simply balanced forms, 
if each branch, with open air all round it, had nothing to 
think of but reconcilement of interests among its own leaves. 
But every branch has others to meet or to cross, sharing with 
them, in various advantage, what shade, or sun, or rain is to 
be had. Hence every single leaf-cluster presents the general 
aspect of a little family, entirely at unity among themselves, 
but obliged to get their living by various shifts, concessions, 
and infringements of the family rules, in order not to invade 
the privileges of other people in their neighborhood. 

— John Ruskin. 



INDEX. 



Absolute construction, 140. 

Abstract noun, 27 ; formation of, 27. 

Active forms of verbs, 115. 

Active voice, 79, 115. 

Address, nominative of, 140. 

Adjectives, 9, 20 ; classes of, 66, 67 ; 
descriptive, 66 ; limiting, 66 ; com- 
pound, 67 ; interrogative, 61 ; parti- 
cipial, 86; comparison of, 69-71; 
construction of, 146-148 ; used at- 
tributively, 146; used appositively, 
147 ; used predicatively, 147 ; re- 
view of, 73, 74 ; parsing of, 74. 

Adjective clause, 178. 

Adjective phrase, 165. 

Adjective pronoun, 53. 

Adjuncts, 163. 

Adverbs, 12,20; classes of, 125, 126; 
of time, 125; of place, 125; of 
manner, 125; of degree, 125; mo- 
dal, 125; simple, 126; conjunctive, 
126; interrogative, 126; use of 
there, 125; of yes and no, 126; 
phrases, 126; identical in form with 
adjectives, 129; comparison of, 126; 
use of, 129; parsing of, 126, 127; 
review of, 130. 



Adverbial clause, 178, 179; denoting 
time, 178 ; place, 178 ; manner, 179; 
degree, 179; cause or reason, 179; 
purpose, 179; condition, 179; con- 
cession, 179. 

Adverbial conjunction, 126. 

Adverbial object, 141. 

Adverbial phrase, 165. 

Adversative conjunctions, 133. 

Alternative conjunctions, 134. 

Analysis of sentences, 172-193; sim- 
ple, 172-176; complex, 181-186; 
' compound, 187-190. 

Antecedent of pronoun, 56. 

Apposition, 140. 

Appositive, 140. 

Appositive phrase, 165. 

Articles, 67 ; definite, 6j ; indefinite, 
67; use of, 67. 

Auxiliary verbs, 90, 100-114; have, 
102, 103; do, 104; shall, 105-107; 
will, 105-107; be, 1 07- 1 10; can, 
in; may, 112; must, 112; should 
and would, 112, 113, 

Bare subject, 163. 
Bare predicate, 163. 



195 



196 



INDEX. 



Be, 107-109; forms of, 107, 108; as 
auxiliary, 108, 109; in making the 
passive voice, 108 ; in making the 
progressive form, 109 ; as an inde- 
pendent verb, 109 ; to express exist- 
ence, 109; as a copula, 109. 

Can, forms of, 1 1 1 ; use of, 1 1 1 . 

Capital letters, rules for, 25, 26. 

Case, 38 ; nominative, 39 ; possessive, 
39; objective, 39. 

Causal conjunction, 134. 

Clause, 55, 165 ; independent or prin- 
cipal, 55, 165 ; dependent or sub- 
ordinate, 55, 165; adjective, 178, 
180; adverbial, 178,180; substan- 
tive, 177,179- 

Collective noun, 26. 

Common gender, 35. 

Common noun, 26. 

Comparative degree, 70, 71 ; forma- 
tion of, 70 ; use of, 70. 

Comparison, 70-73, 138 ; of adjectives, 
• 69-73; of adverbs, 126; irregular, 

7i- 
Complement, 164. 
Complete subject, 163. 
Complete predicate, 164. 
Complex sentences, 166, 177-186; 

structure of, 1 77-1 81 ; analysis of, 

181-186. 
Compound adjective, 67. 
Compound conjunctions, 134. 
Compound modifiers, 170. 
Compound personal pronouns, 5 1, 53 ; 

formation of, 52 ; use as reflexives, 

52; declension of, 52. 
Compound possessives, 42. 



Compound prepositions, 131. 

Compound relative pronouns, 57; 
formation of, 57. 

Compound sentences, 187-190; struc- 
ture of, 187; analysis of, 187— 
189. 

Conjugation, 94-118; strong or old, 
94, 95-97 ; weak or new, 94, 98, 99 ; 
irregular verbs of the old conjuga- 
tion, 95-97 ; irregular verbs of the 
new conjugation, 98, 99 ; active 
voice, 1 1 5-1 17; passive voice, 117; 
progressive forms, 118. 

Conjunctions, 16, 20; classes of, 133, 
134; co-ordinating, 133; copula- 
tive, 133; adversative, 133; alter- 
native, 134; causal, 134; correla- 
tives, 134; subordinating, 134; 
compound, 134; parsing of, 134, 
135 ; review of, 136. 

Conjunctive adverbs, 126. 

Construction, 139; of the noun, 139— 
143; of the pronoun, 143-146; of 
the adjective, 146-148 ; of the verb, 
148-150; of infinitives, 151— 153 ; 
of participles, 154, 155. 

Co-ordinating conjunctions, 133. 

Copula, 109, 164. 

Copulative conjunctions, 133. 

Correlatives, 134. 

Declarative sentence, 1. 

Declension, 39, 138 ; of nouns, 39 ; of 
personal pronouns, 49, 50 ; of com- 
pound personal pronouns, 52 ; of 
the relative who, 57. 

Defective verb, 95. 

Definite article, 67. 



INDEX. 



197 



Degrees of comparison, positive, 70 ; 

comparative, 70 ; superlative, 70 
Dependent clause, 55, 165. 
Descriptive adjective, 66. 
Different uses of the same word, 157— 

159; all, 157; as, 157; before, 157; 

both, 157; but, 157; else, 158; 

enough, 158 ; except, 158 ; for, 158 ; 

however, 158 ; //^, 158 ; since, 159 ; 

jtf, 159; Ma/, 159; the, 159. 
Zto, used as an auxiliary verb, 104 ; to 

express emphasis, 104; to express 

negation, 104; to ask a question, 

104; as an independent verb, 104. 

Elements of a sentence, 164-166; 

words, 164; phrases, 164, 165; 

clauses, 164, 165; principal, 166; 

subordinate, 166. 
Exclamatory sentence, I . 
Expletive, 125. 

Factitive verb, 164. 

Feminine gender, of nouns, 35 ; of 
pronouns, 51. 

Foreign words, plural of, 34. 

Forms of verb, 93-118; regular, 93, 
94; irregular, 93, 99; strong, 94; 
weak, 94; irregular verbs of the 
old conjugation, 95-97 ; irregular 
verbs of the new conjugation, 98- 
100; be, 107-110; can, in; do, 
104; have, 102, 103; shall, 105- 
107; will, 105-107; 7nay, 112; 
active, 115-117; passive, 117, 118; 
progressive, 118. 

Future-perfect tense, 90. 

Future tense, 89. 



Gender, 34 ; masculine, 35 ; feminine, 
35 ; common, 35 ; neuter, 35 ; of 
nouns, 34-37 ; of pronouns, 50, 51. 

Gerund, 84. 

Grammatical predicate, 163. 

Grammatical subject, 163. 

Have, 102, 103 ; forms of, 102 ; use. 
as an auxiliary verb, 103 ; as an 
independent verb, 103. 

Imperative mode, 82. 

Imperative sentence, 1. 

Imperfect participle, 86. 

Impersonal subject and object of verb, 
144. 

Indefinite article, 67. 

Indefinite use of pronouns, 144. 

Independent clause, 55, 165. 

Indicative mode, 81. 

Indirect object, 141. 

Infinitives, 83-85 ; simple, 83, 84 ; in 
ingox participial, 83, 84; construc- 
tions of, 1 51-153; as subject of 
verb, 151; as predicate nomina- 
tive, 151 ; as object of verb, 151 ; 
as object of preposition, 151; after 
the verbs may, can, etc., 151 ; as 
modifiers, 151 ; used to express pur- 
pose, 152 ; used elliptically or abso- 
lutely, 152 ; used with noun or pro- 
noun as object of verb, 152; used 
with possessive modifier, 152 ; pars- 
ing of, 119-121. 

Infinitive in ing, 83, 84 ; constructions 
of, 151, 152. 

Infinitive phrase, 164. 

Inflection, 39, 138; of nouns and pro 



198 



INDEX. 



nouns, 138 ; of adjectives, 138; of 
verbs, 138; of adverbs, 138. 

Interjections, 17, 20, 137; parsing of, 
137- 

Interrogative adjectives, 61. 

Interrogative adverbs, 126. 

Interrogative pronouns, 61-63 ; use 
of, 61. 

Interrogative sentence, 1. 

Intransitive verbs, 76; made transi- 
tive, 80. 

Irregular comparison of adjectives, 71. 

Irregular verbs, 93 ; lists of, 95-99- 

//, used impersonally, 144; used for 
the logical subject, 144. 

Limiting adjectives, 66. 
Logical subject, 163. 
Logical predicate, 164. 

Masculine gender, 35 ; of nouns, 35 ; 

of pronouns, 50, 51. 
May, 112 ; forms of, 112 ; use of, 112. 
Modal adverbs, 125. 
Mode, 81 ; indicative, 81 ; imperative, 

82; subjunctive, 82. 
Modifiers, 9, 163, 170 ; of subject, 168 ; 

of predicate, 169; simple, 170; 

complex, 170; compound, 170. 

Neuter gender, 35 ; of nouns, 35 ; of 
pronouns, 35, 51. 

Nominative absolute, 140. 

Nominative of address, 140. 

Nominative case, 39; subject nomi- 
native, 139; predicate nominative, 
139 ; nominative absolute, 140 ; 
nominative of address, 140. 



Nouns, 6, 20 ; classes of, 25-28 ; 
proper, 25 ; common, 26 ; collective, 
27 ; abstract. 27 ; verbal, 27, 86 ; 
number of, 28-34 ; gender of, 34- 
37 ; case of, 38-45 ; constructions 
of, 139-143 ; as predicate nomina- 
tive, 139; as objective predicate, 
140 ; as appositives, 140 ; nomina- 
tive absolute, 140 ; nominative of 
address, 140; as possessive, 141; 
as object of verb, 141 ; as object of 
preposition, 141 ; as indirect object, 
141 ; as adverbial object, 141 ; 
parsing of, 45, 46 ; review of, 47, 48. 

Number, of nouns, 28-34; of pro- 
nouns, 50 ; of the adjectives this 
and that, 71 ; of verbs, 92. 

Object. 14, 38, 76; of prepositions, 
14; of verb, 38, 76; direct, 141; 
indirect, 141 ; adverbial, 141. 

Objective case, 39 ; object of a transi- 
tive verb, 141 ; object of a preposi- 
tion, 141 ; objective predicate. 140; 
indirect object, 141 ; adverbial ob- 
ject, 141. 

Objective predicate, 140. 

Parsing, 45 ; of nouns, 45, 46 ; of pro- 
nouns, 64 ; of adjectives, 74 ; of 
verbs, infinitives, and participles, 
119-121; of adverbs, 126, 127; of 
prepositions, 131 ; of conjunctions, 
134, 135; of interjections, 137. 

Participles, 85 ; present or imperfect, 
86; past or perfect, 86; construc- 
tions of, 154, 155; used attribu- 
tively, 1 54 ; used appositively, 1 54 ; 



INDEX. 



199 



used predicatively, 1 54 ; used abso- 
lutely, 154; parsing of, 1 19-12 1. 

Participial adjective, 86. 

Participial infinitive, 84; how dis- 
tinguished from the present parti- 
ciple and the verbal noun, 86; 
constructions of, 151, 152. 

Participial phrase, 165. 

Parts of speech, 19; summary of, 20. 

Passive forms of verbs, 117, 118. 

Passive voice, 80, 108, 117. 

Past participle, 86. 

Past-perfect tense, 89. 

Past tense, 89. 

Perfect participle, 86. 

Person, of pronouns, 49; of verbs, 
92. 

Personal pronouns, 49-53 ; declension 
of, 49, 50 ; use of second person 
singular, 50 ; use of third person 
singular, 50, 51 ; use of possessive 
forms, 51 ; compound, 51, 52. 

Phrases, 164, 165 ; prepositional, 164; 
infinitive, 164; participial, 165 ; ap- 
positive, 165 ; adjective, 165 ; ad- 
verbial, 165 ; substantive, 165 ; sim- 
ple, 170; complex, 170; compound, 
170. 

Plural number, 29 ; of nouns, 29-34 ; 
of nouns having two plurals, 32; 
of compound nouns, 33 ; of titles, 
33 ; of letters, figures, and signs, 
34; of nouns from foreign lan- 
guages, 34. 

Plural subjects, 149. 

Possessives, 141. 

Possessive case, 39, 141 ; of singular 
nouns, 40 ; of plural nouns, 41 ; of 



compound nouns, 42 ; of phrases, 
42 ; of nouns denoting joint posses- 
sion, 42 ; of nouns denoting sepa- 
rate possession, 42; of phrases 
denoting a period of time, 44; 
of the names of things personified, 
44; possession indicated by the 
objective case with preposition, 44. 

Possessive forms of nouns, 40, 42, 
44. 

Potential mode, 113, 120; parsing 
verbs in, 120. 

Predicate, 3 ; grammatical or bare, 
163 ; logical or complete, 164. 

Predicate adjective, 147. 

Predicate nominative, 139, 140. 

Predicate noun, 139. 

Prepositions, 14, 20, 130; relations 
expressed by, 130, 131 ; compound, 
131 ; parsing of, 131. 

Prepositional phrase, 164. 

Present participle, 86. 

Present-perfect tense, 89. 

Present tense, 89. 

Principal clause, 55, 165. 

Principal elements of a sentence, 166. 

Principal parts of verb, 95. 

Progressive form of verbs, 109, 118. 

Pronouns, 7 ; personal, 49 ; relative, 
55 ; adjective, 53 ; interrogative, 
61; antecedent, 56; constructions 
of, 143-145 ; agreement with an- 
tecedent, 60, 143 ; case-relations, 
145; used impersonally, 144; used 
reflexively, 52 ; review of, 63 ; pars- 
ing of, 64. 

Proper adjectives, 66. 

Proper nouns, 25. 



200 



INDEX. 



Reflexive use of pronouns, 52. 

Regular verbs, 93. 

Relative clause, 55 ; explanatory, 57 ; 
restrictive, 57. 

Relative pronouns, 55-60 ; antecedent 
of, 56, 60; use of, 56, 57; declen- 
sion of, 57 ; compound, 57. 

Review, 47, 63, 7^ 124, 130, 136. 

Rules, for comparison of adjectives, 
70 ; plural forms of nouns, 29-34 ; 
possessive forms of nouns, 40-42 ; 
singular and plural forms of verbs, 
149 ; of syntax, 156. 

Selections for analysis, 190-193; for 
parsing, 1 59-161. 

Sentences, 1, 163-190; declarative, 
1 ; imperative, 1 ; interrogative, 1 ; 
exclamatory, 1 ; subject of, 3, 163 ; 
predicate of, 3, 163, 164; structure 
of, 1 63- 1 7 1, 177-180, 187 ; elements 
of, 164-166; simple, 166, 167-176; 
complex, 166, 177-186; compound, 
166, 187-190; analysis of, 172-176, 
181-186, 187-189. 

Shall, 105; forms of, 105; uses of, 
105. 

Simple adverb, 126. 

Simple infinitive, 83, 84; construc- 
tions of, 151, 152. 

Simple modifiers, 170. 

Simple sentence, 167-176; subject of, 
167; modifiers of subject, 168; 
predicate of, 168, 169; modifiers of 
predicate, 169; analysis of, 172-176. 

Singular number, 29. 

Singular subjects, 149. 

Strong verbs, 94. 



Structure of the sentence, 163-171, 
177-180, 187; simple, 167-171; 
complex, 177-181 ; compound, 187. 

Subject, 3. 163; grammatical or bare, 
163; logical or complete, 163; of 
a verb, 11, 76, 139. 

Subject of an infinitive, 152. 

Subject nominative, 139. 

Subjunctive mode, 82. 

Subordinate clause, 55, 165. 

Subordinate elements of a sentence, 
166. 

Subordinating conjunctions, 134. 

Substantive clause, 177; used as the 
subject of a verb, 177; as predicate 
nominative, 177; as object of a 
transitive verb, 177 ; as logical sub- 
ject, 178; as object of 'a preposi- 
tion, 178. 

Substantive phrase, 165. 

Summary, of parts of speech, 20 ; of 
rules of syntax, 156. 

Superlative degree, 70, 71 ; formation 
of, 70; use of. 70. 

Syntax, 139; rules of, 156. 

Tense, 89, 91 ; present, 89 ; past, 
89 ; future, 89 ; present - perfect, 
89 ; past-perfect or pluperfect, 89 ; 
future-perfect, 90 ; formation of, 
90. 

There, used as an expletive, 125. 

To, with the infinitive, 84. 

Transitive verbs, 76. 

Verbal nouns, 27, 86. 
Verbs, 11, 20 ; regular, 93 ; irregular 
93 ; strong, 94 ; weak. 94 ; defective, 



INDEX. 



201 



95 ; principal parts of, 95 ; transitive, 
76 ; intransitive, 76 ; of incomplete 
predication, 163, 164; auxiliary, 90, 
100-1 14 ; independent, 103 ; sub- 
ject of, 11, 76; object of, 38, 76; 
complement of, 164; mode of, 81, 
82 ; tense of, 89-91 ; person and 
number of, 92 ; agreement with 
subject, 148-150 ; forms of, 93, 102, 
105, 107-109, in, 112; conjugation 
of, 1 1 5-1 18 ; list of irregular verbs, 



95-99; irregular verbs of the old 
conjugation, 95-97 ; irregular verbs 
of the new conjugation, 98, 99; 
parsing of, 119-121 ; review of, 124. 
Voice, 79; active, 79; passive, 80, 
108, 117. 

Weak verbs, 94. 

Will, forms of, 105 ; use of, 105, 

Yes and no as adverbs, 126. 



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Supplementary Reading 

A Classified L istfor all Grades. 

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Badlam's Primer ......... 45 

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Spear's Leaves and Flowers ....... .25 

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Brown's Alice and Tom ........ .40 

Grinnell's Our Feathered Friends ...... .30 

Heart of Oak Readers, Book III . ... . .45 

Pratt's America's Story — Discoverers and Explorers .... .40 

Wright's Seaside and Wayside Nature Readers, No. 3 ... .43 

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Grinnell's Our Feathered Friends ...... .30 

Heart of Oak Readers, Book III ....... .45 

Pratt's America's Story — The Earlier Colonies ..... .00 

Kupfer's Stories of Long Ago ....... .35 

GRADE VI. Starr's Strange Peoples ....... .40 

Bull's Fridtjof Nansen ........ .30 

Heart of Oak Readers, Book IV ...... .50 

Pratt's America's Story — The Colonial Period ..... .00 

Dole's The Young Citizen ....... .45 

GRADE VII. Starr's American Indians ...... .45 

Penniman's School Poetry Book ....... .30 

Pratt's America's Story — The Revolution and the Republic ... .00 

Eckstorm's The Bird Book ....... .60 

Heart of Oak Readers, Book IV . . . . . . . .50 

Wright's Seaside and Wayside Nature Readers, No. 4 . . . . .50 

GRADES VIII and IX. Heart of Oak Readers, Book V 55 

Heart of Oak Readers, Book VI . . . . . . „ .60 

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Music. 



Whiting's Public School Music Course. Six books, forming a complete course for 

each class from primary to highest grammar grades. Books I to V, Boards, each 25 

cents. Book VI. Boards. 54 cents. 

" For a general, all-round, well balanced system, capable of use in all schools, 
taught by the school-room teachers, for sweetness and completeness of general 
musical culture, the Whiting System is by far the most satisfactory." — L. H. Jones. 
Supt. of Schools, Cleveland, O. 

Whiting's Sixth Music Reader, Girls' Edition. Designed for use in the last years 
of the grammar school, girls' high schools, ladies' seminaries, and colleges. 54 cents. 

Whiting's Complete Music Reader. A complete course for high school, academies, 
etc. Boards. Octavo. 75 cents. 

Whiting's Part-Song and Chorus BOOk. For high and other schools. Vocal exer- 
cises; solfeggios; three- and four-part songs (for mixed and female voices); sacred 
choruses, etc. Boards. Octavo. 96 cents. 

Whiting's Young People's Song-BOOk. A text-book for ungraded schools. Contains 
complete elementary course, with songs, choruses, hymns and patriotic selections. 
Boards. 35 cents. 

Whiting's Music Charts. First Series, 30 charts, bound, $6.00. Second Series, 14 
charts, bound, $3.00. (Easel for Music Charts, $1.50.) 

Emerson's School and College Hymnal. Hymns, patriotic songs, and responsive 
Scripture readings. Square 8vo. Cloth. 50 uents. Boards. 35 cents. 

Hart's School Manual Of Classic Music. Contains portraits, sketches of the lives 
of and selections from the great masters. Boards. Octavo. Ji.oo. 

Pray'S Motion SOngS. For primary and intermediate grades. Contains sixty pleasing 
songs, with gestures indicated. Boards. Illustrated. 40 cents. 

Supplementary Music for Public Schools. Eight page numbers, 3 cents. Twelve 

page numbers, 4 cents. Sixteen page numbers, 5 cents. Send/or complete list. 

Thomas's Modulator. A chant, 34x45 inches, mounted on rollers. Gives the nine 
keys. 75 cents. 

Whittlesey and Jamieson's Harmony in Praise. A collection of Hymns with 

responsive Biblical selections, for college and school chapel exercises and for families. 
Cloth. Octavo. 75 cents. 

Wilson's Infant SchOOl Drill. Exercises, with music, for the healthy development 
of the body. 32 pages. Square 8vo. Illustrated. Limp cloth. 25 cents. 

Descriptive circulars and full information free on request. Correspondence is invited. 

D. C. HEATH & CO., Publishers, Boston,New York,Chicago 



Drawing and Manual Training. 

Thompson's New Short Course in Drawing. A practical, well-balanced sys- 

tern, based en correct principles. Can be taught by the ordinary teacher and learned by 
the ordinary pupil. Books I-IV, 6x9 inches, per dozen, $1.20. Books V-VIII, 9 x 12 
inches, per dozen, #1.75. Manual to Books I-IV, 40 cts. Manual to Books V-VIII, 
40 cts. Two-Book Course: Book A, per dozen, $1.20; Book B, per dozen, $1.75; 
Manual, 40 cts. 
Thompson's iEsthetiC Series Of Drawing. This series includes the study of 
Historical Ornament and Decorative Design. Book I treats of Egyptian art; Book II, 
Greek ; Book III, Roman ; Book IV, Byzantine ; Book V, Moorish ; Book VI, Gothic. 
Per dozen, $1. 50. Manual, 60 cents. 

Thompson's Educational and Industrial Drawing. 

Primary Free-Hand Series (Nos. 1-4). Each No., per doz., $1.00. Manual, 40 cts. 

Advanced Free-Hand Series (Nos. 5-S.) Each No., per doz., $1.50. 

Model and Object Series (Nos. 1-3). Each No., per doz., $1.75. Manual, 35 cts. 

Mechanical Series (Nos. 1-6). Each No., per doz., $2.00. Manual, 75 cts. 
Thompson's Manual Training WO. I. Clay modeling, stick laying, paper folding, 

color and construction of geometrical solids. Illus. 66 pp. 25 cts. 
Thompson's Manual Training NO. 2. Mechanical drawing, clay modelling, 

color, wood carving. Illus. 70 pp. 25 cts. 
Thompson's Drawing Tablets. Four Tablets, with drawing exercises and practice 

paper, for use in the earlier grades. Each No., per doz., $1.20. 
Drawing Models. Individual sets and class sets of models are made to accompany 

several of the different series in the Thompson Drawing Courses. Descriptive circulars 

free on request. 

Anthony's Mechanical Drawing. 9 s pages of text, and 32 folding plates. $1.50. 
Anthony's Machine Drawing. 65 pages of text, and is folding plates. $1.50. 
Anthony's Essentials of Gearing. s 4 pages of text, and 15 folding plates, $1.50. 
Daniels's Freehand Lettering. 34 pages of text, and 13 folding plates. 75 cts. 

Johnson's LeSSOnS in Needlework. Gives, with illustrations, full directions for 
work during six grades. 117 pages. Square 8vo. Cloth, $1.00. Boards, 60 cts. 

Lunt's Brushwork for Kindergarten and Primary Schools. Eighteen lesson 

cards in colors, with teacher's pamphlet, in envelope. 25 cts. 

Seidel's Industrial Instruction (Smith). A refutation of all objections raised against 
industrial instruction. 170 pages. 90 cents. 

Waldo's Descriptive Geometry. A large number of problems systematically ar- 
ranged, with suggestions. 85 pages. 80 cents. 

Whitaker's How to use Woodworking Tools. Lessons in the uses of the 

hammer, knife, plane, rule, square, gauge, chisel, saw and auger. 104 pages. 60 cents. 

Woodward's Manual Training School, its aims, methods and results; with 

detailed courses of instruction in shop-work. Illustrated. 374 pages. Octavo. $2.00. 
Sent postpaid by mail on receipt of price. 

D.C. HEATH & CO., Publishers, Boston, NewYork, Chicago 



Higher English. 



Bray's History of English Critical Terms. A vocabulary of 1400 critical terms used 
in literature and art, with critical and historical data for their study. $1.00. 

Cook's Judith. With introduction, translation and glossary. Octavo. 170 pages. $1.00. 

Espenshade's Essentials of Composition and Rhetoric. A working text-book for 
higher schools and colleges. $1.00. 

Hall's Beowulf. A metrical translation of this ancient epic. Octavo. Cloth, 75 cents. 
Paper, 30 cents. 

Kluge and Lutz's English Etymology. A select glossary for use in the study of histor- 
ical grammar. 60 cents. 

Lewis's Inductive Rhetoric. For schools and colleges. 90 cents. 

MacEwan's The Essentials of Argumentation. A systematic discussion of principles, 
with illustrative extracts; full analysis of several masterpieces, and a list of proposi- 
tions for debate. #1.12. 

MacEwan's The Essentials of the English Sentence. Presents a review of the essen- 
tials of grammar and bridges the transition to rhetoric. 75 cents. 

Meiklejohn's The English Language. Part I— English Grammar; Part II — Compo- 
sition and Versification; Part III — History of the English Language; Part IV — 
History of English Literature. $1.20. 

Meiklejohn's English Grammar. Contains Parts I and II of Meiklejohn's The English 
Language, with exercises. 80 cents. 

0' Conor's Rhetoric and Oratory. A manual of precepts and principles, with masterpieces 
for analysis and study. $1.12. 

Pearson's The Principles of Composition. Begins with the composition as a whole. 
Paragraphs, sentences and words are treated later, and in this order. 50 cents. 

Smith's The Writing of the Short Story. An analytical study. 25 cents. 

Strang's Exercises in English. Examples in Syntax, Accidence, and Style, for criticism 
and correction. New edition, revised and enlarged. 45 cents. 

Whitcomb's The Study of a Novel. Analytic and synthetic work for college classes. 

William's Composition and Rhetoric. Concise, practical, and thorough, with little 
theory and much practice, go cents. 



Monographs on English. 
Bowen's Historical Study of the O-vowel. Cloth. 109 pp. 
Genung : s Study of Rhetoric in the College Course. Paper. ; 
Hempl's Chaucer's Pronunciation. Stiff Paper. 39 pp. . 
Huffcut's English in the Preparatory School. Paper. 2S pp. 
Woodward's Study of English. Paper. 25 pp. 



51.25 

•25 

5o 
25 

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See also our list of hooks in Elementary English, 
English Literature and English Classics 

D.C. HEATH & CO., Publishers, Boston, New York, Chicago 



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